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Members of Fifty Years or More Lawrence Addicks '02 T H Aldrich '98 Walter H Aldridge '89 Eugene Ant. '99 George H Ashley '99 R M Atwater, Jr '97 James B Bailey '00 Samuel Barker, Jr '00 John F Berry '93 Charles A Bohn '93 W S Boyd '02 H C Boynton '01 H A Brassert '99 Arthur C Brinker '01 James F Brophy '01 Davenport Brown '02 Donald C Brown '01 Victor B Buck '98 Frederick Burbidge '87 Frederick P Burrall '97 John Cabot, Jr '99

Jan 1, 1952

By George A. Miller

THE outstanding characteristic of the American business man is that he likes to run his own business his own way, without any interference from his wife, his friends, his bankers, and least of all from his government. The oil man, like the miner, is an American business man in which this special characteristic is even more pronounced. It may be because he has been an explorer and is more nearly like those pioneering Americans who explored, developed, and built these United States.

Jan 1, 1944

Albin, B. R Billings, Mont. '28 Amster, Nathan L 25 Broad St., New York, N. Y. '28 Bache, Jules S 42 Broadway, New York, N. Y. '28 Barrett, C. P 5338 Harper Ave., Chicago, 111. '28 Bayless, William S Russ Bldg., San Francisco, Cal. '28 Bean, Louis, H 60 E. 42nd St., New York, N. Y. '28 Beatty, Ross J Room 604, 6 N. Clark St., Chicago, III. '28 Benwell, Oswald F Hold Mags. '28 Beymer, Albert S., V.P., Keystone National Bank Pittsburgh, Pa. '28 Blumenthal, Hugo 44 Pine St., New York, N. Y. '28 Boettcher. Charles Ideal Cement Bldg., Denver, Colo. '28 Bowlus, Thomas H., Banker, Pres., Allen County State Bank Iola, Ran. '28 Brown, Colvin B Chamber of Commerce, Washington, D. C. '28 Burt, Maxwell Struthers Southern Pines, N. C. '28

Jan 1, 1934

By Eugene A. Stephenson

In most instances the fluids produced from underground reservoirs have been described as they appear at the surface, and usually it has not been necessary to distinguish between surface and reservoir phases. More recently it has become imperative to recognize the fact that changes in phase may occur between the reservoir and the receiving unit. The simple terminology of "wet" and "dry" gases and "crude petroleum oil" served our needs fairly well in the shallow, low-temperature and low-pressure fields. It has been left to the legislatures, regulatory commissions, and courts to decide whether a field is or was a gas field, an oil field, or both. This they have done by direct definition and also by implication. For example, in Texas:' (d) The term "gas well" is any well (a) which produces natural gas not associated or blended with crude petroleum oil at the time of production, or (b) which produces more than one hundred thousand (100,000) cubic feet of natural gas to each barrel of crude petroleum oil from the same producing horizon, or (c) which produces natural gas from a formation or producing horizon productive of gas only encountered in a well bore through which crude petroleum oil is also produced through the inside of another string of casing. (e) The term "oil well" is any well which produces one (1) barrel or more of crude petroleum oil to each one hundred thousand (100,000) cubic feet of natural gas. In the state of Louisiana, the same general result is achieved largely by the following paragraph :* Wells producing both oil and gas shall not waste or blow into the air an amount of gas of more value at three cents per thousand cubic feet, than the market value of the oil recovered. The Commissioner of Conservation shall allow a reasonable time to determine the status of any well. This means that for wells making both oil and gas, if n represents the price of oil in dollars, and x the allowable gas waste expressed in M cu. ft. Per day,

Jan 1, 1938

By G. M. Gay, R. L. Perrine

This paper describes a method of numerical computation for three-dimensional, unstable, miscible displacement behavior useful for heterogeneous systems, as well as for more ideal conditions. In the method, flow equations are first linearized by a perturbation approach. The basic flow process is separated and a solution for its behavior readily obtained. The remaining problem of deviations from the basic flow caused by non-ideal conditions is then subjected to numerical analysis. Results obtained from use of the method are also presented. Although conditions assumed in the test cal-culations were severe, results show the type of dispersing flow expected and appear quite satisfactory. The method has eliminated or reduced in importance problems of oscillating values near steep fronts, excessive computer smoothing, etc. A unique advantage of the method is that the source of variations from ideal behavior can be observed. ,The one serious drawback results from the algebraic complexity of the perturbation approach, and the need for second-order terms to be retained in calculations of interest. Fewer array points are available and more computer time is required than would be desired. However, these difficulties are also experienced with other approaches to the solution of three-dimensional dispIacement problems. INTRODUCTION Prediction of behavior of the miscible displacement process within a porous medium for any system of engineering importance is plagued by a number of difficulties. With typical fluid properties the displacing fluid has the lower viscosity, and there is a natural tendency toward flow instability. The problem of predicting instability is compounded by the fact that every real system is heterogeneous. Permeability will vary from point to point — not entirely systematically, and yet not in a random fashion leading to a readily defined average. Furthermore, permeability is unlikely to be isotropic. These permeability properties, which are characteristic of any real porous medium, accentuate the effects of flow instability. Another factor to be considered is that flow dispersion accompanies the displacement process in a porous medium. Mechanistically, dispersion is due to the fact that flow between any two points in the medium follows multiple tortuous paths, each characterized by slightly different flow properties. The fact that the coefficient characterizing dispersive properties of the real medium JS a tensor with variable elements complicates matters. Further difficulties arise because the parabolic influence, while not negligible, is small. Thus, there is a tendency toward steep and uneven displacement fronts along which dispersion smoothing must be represented accurately. Yet frequently used numerical analysis schemes may tend toward either instability, oscillation or excessive smoothing, none of which gives the desired accurate picture of flow behavior. Thus, while many experimental and analytical studies of the process have been made, predictions of actual performance are still subject to considerable uncertainty and possible improvement. This paper reports on part of a study which attempts to develop improved methods for solution of the flow equations describing the miscible displacement process. Of necessity, the calculations were performed on a large digital computer. A three-dimensional system is represented, and the coefficients defining dispersion and permeability can be varied in a manner representative of a real system. Because the differential equations are nonlinear, a first step is to linearize them using a perturbation approach. Objective of this approach has been to separate the basic flow which would occur in an ideal system and for which predictions are readily made. Then the numerical analysis, which is necessarily complex, is directed toward solution of the perturbation equations. These equations state how the basic flow is modified

Jan 1, 1967

Albin, B. R Billings, Mont. Amster, Nathan L 25 Broad St., New York, N. Y. Bache, Jules S 42 Broadway, New York, N. Y. Barrett, C. P6338 Harper Ave., Chicago, Ill. Baum, Frank G Hobart Bldg., San Francisco, Cal. Bayless, Hon. William S Russ Bldg., San Francisco, Cal. Bean, Louis H., V.P., Dwight P. Robinson & Co., Inc 125 E. 46th St., New York, N. Y. Beatty, Ross J 1106 First National Bank Bldg., Chicago, Ill. Benwell, Oswald F 205 Colorado National Bank, Denver, Colo. Beymer, Albert S., V.P., Keystone National Bank Pittsburgh, Pa. Bingham, Charles W 1542 Hanna Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio. Blumenthal, Hugo 44 Pine St., New York, N. Y. Boettcher, Charles Ideal Cement Bldg., Denver, Colo. Bowlus, Thomas H Iola, Kans. Bragg, E. B Carmel, Cal.

Jan 1, 1929

By Randolph C. Specht

A two year study was made of the waste disposal of the pebble rock phosphate industry. Solid slimes are impounded in large settling areas and the process water is re-used. Clear effluent was not found to be toxic to fish, or animal life in field tests or in controlled experiments.

Jan 1, 1950

By J. E. Johnson

The brief contribution of Mr. West* furnishes a text for the present paper, which will, however, take a wider range, warranted by the writer's somewhat unusual opportunities for the study of the practice of the foundry as well as the blast-furnace, and especially of the production of satisfactory castings from iron of a composition altogether unsuitable, in the opinion of the average foundryman, for that purpose. Mr. West has observed that plates cast from direct-metal of a certain composition could be planed, whereas this would have been impracticable with cupola-metal of like composition; that furnace-metal has more " life " (i. e., fluidity, or a higher temperature) than cupola-metal; that it throws out much " kish," etc. And he suggests that blast-furnace managers may throw further light on the greater softness of direct-metal castings. Perhaps such light may be furnished to some extent by the present paper. The difference between cupola-metal and furnace- or direct-metal is, first of all, in the lower average sulphur-content of the latter. It has been proved by experiment that iron increases in its content of sulphur to a considerable extent with each remelting. More than thirty years ago Fairbairn showed that a certain iron after remelting 18 times had only five-

Jan 1, 1905

Albin, B. R Billings, Mont. '28 Amster, Nathan L 25 Broad St., New York, N. Y. '28 Bache, Jules S 42 Broadway, New York, N. Y. '28 Barrett, C. P 5338 Harper Ave., Chicago, 111. '28 Bayless, William S Russ Bldg., San Francisco, Cal. '28 Bean, Louis, H 60 E. 42nd St., New York, N. Y. '28 Beatty, Ross J Room 604, 6 N. Clark St., Chicago, III. '28 Benwell, Oswald F Hold Mags. '28 Beymer, Albert S., V.P., Keystone National Bank Pittsburgh, Pa. '28 Blumenthal, Hugo 44 Pine St., New York, N. Y. '28 Boettcher. Charles Ideal Cement Bldg., Denver, Colo. '28 Bowlus, Thomas H., Banker, Pres., Allen County State Bank Iola, Ran. '28 Brown, Colvin B Chamber of Commerce, Washington, D. C. '28 Burt, Maxwell Struthers Southern Pines, N. C. '28

Jan 1, 1934

By G. C. Wallick, J. S. Aronofsky

This paper presents an experimental verification of numerical solutions of the differential equation describing the transient flow of an ideal gas through a porous material including gas slip effects. Several experiments previously proposed by one of the authors are described together with the correlation of the experimental results with the numerical solutions. Excellent agreement is shown between experiment and theory, thus demonstrating the validity of both the basic assumption made in the derivation of the differential equation and of the numerical solutions of the differential equation. INTRODUCTION In a recent paper,' one of the authors has discussed a numerical solution of the differential equation describing the unsteady flow of an ideal gas through a porous material. This paper was primarily concerned with the effect of gas slip on the flow behavior. In steady state measurements, Klinkenberg2 and others have observed that the apparent gas permeability Kn of a porous material may be expressed as a linear function of the reciprocal average pressure 1/P of the form, ka = b + m/P........(1) where the intercept b is a constant for a given porous material and the slope m is a constant for a given porous material-gas combination. Aronofsky1 assumed that Equation (1) could be used to describe transient flow if P was replaced by the average pressure in an infinitesimal volume element. A number of numerical solutions of the resultant differential equation were presented and specific flow experiments were proposed as a means of testing the numerical solutions. The purpose of the present paper is to describe the results of several of these experiments and the correlation of the experimental data with the results of the numerical analysis. Reference should be made to the previous paper' for details of the mathematical and numerical analysis. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A simplified schematic drawing of the experimental apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. An 8.89 cm diameter limestone core of length L = 14.82 cm was mounted in a conventional rubber sleeve permeameter cell. The external sleeve pressure in this cell was maintained equal to 500 psig during all experimental tests, thus permitting only longitudinal flow through the core. One end of the core, X = L, was connected to an adjustable cavity of volume V as well as a pressure gauge or manometer. The other end of the core, X = 0, was connected to a Nullmatic pressure regulator which was in turn connected to a nitrogen cylinder or vacuum pump. In each experiment, the core and adjacent dead volume were charged with nitrogen to a uniform gas pressure P1. The pressure at X = 0 was then suddenly raised or lowered to a constant pressure P, and the resulting pressure buildup or pressure decline at X — L was recorded as a function of the time. The porosity + and the permeability constants m and b were determined using the transient method which was suggested by the results of the numerical analysis and which was described in the earlier paper.' The following average values for these constants were obtained as a result of 19 separate evaluations: 171 -0.259 2 0.005 md-atm; b = 0.374 5 0.008 md; and F = 0.098 ± 0.005*. It should be noted that in order that transient phenomena will be slow enough to be observed conveniently, it is desirable to use a porous material of very low permeability, e.g., less than I md. Moreover, it is in this low permeability range that the gas slip effects are most significant. Thus, such a low permeability sample is very suitable for use in an experimental verification of the numerical solutions previously described.

Jan 1, 1955

By C. G. Dunn, J. L. Walter

Secondary recrystallization to the (110) [001] texture in high-purity silicon iron occurs if low-oxygen material is annealed in a nonoxidizing atmosphere. Any departure from these conditions results in a growth of (100) oriented grains. The nature of the matrix and secondary recrystallization structures and textures and the nature of grain boundary interactions during growth show that the low gas-metal interfacial energy of the (110) surfaces provides the driving force for growth of these grains. A type of grain growth, characterized by a driving force which derives from energy differences of {hkl} surfaces at the gas-metal interface, has been treated in recent papers.&apos;-7 Secondary recrystallization to the cube text!:: in high-purity silicon iron provides one example. The present paper also deals with a surface energy driving force but the texture that results by secondary recrystallization is not the cube texture; it is a texture in which the (110) plane is in the plane of rolling and the [001] direction is in the direction of rolling. The phenomenon described in this paper is different from the impurity (dispersed phase)-controlled secondary recrystallization process in which the (110) [001] oriented grains grow under the action of grain boundary driving forces.8-12 It is also different from tertiary recrystallization,2 which also produces the (110) [001] texture in high-purity silicon iron, since the matrix textures and grain sizes are different. Finally, it is unlike any other form of secondary recrystallization reported in the literature. The possibility of obtaining the (110) [001] texture in high-purity silicon iron became clear in a study of the effect of impurity atoms on the energy relationships of (100) and (110) surfaces. In this study Walter and Dunn6 observed the migration of (100)/(110) boundaries, i.e., boundaries between two grains, one of which has a (100) plane and the other a (110) plane, respectively, parallel to the plane of the sheet specimen. At 1200°C the (100)/(110) boundaries advanced into (100) grains in a vacuum anneal, then reversed their direction and migrated into (110) grains in a subsequent anneal in impure argon. Finally, the direction of migration reversed once again with (110) grains growing into (100) grains in a second vacuum anneal. These results were explained in terms of a change in concentration of oxygen atoms at the gas-metal interface during the anneals. Thus, oxygen atoms were added to the surface during the anneals in impure argon to the point where ?100, the specific surface energy of the (100) oriented grains, was lower than ?110, the surface energy of (110) oriented grains. In vacuum, however, the oxygen concentration at the surface was lowered to the point where ?110 < ?100. Concerning the possibility of secondary recrystallization in high-purity silicon iron with a low initial oxygen concentration, the observed effect of adsorbed oxygen atoms has indicated6 that a good vacuum anneal would favor the rapid growth of matrix grains with the (110) plane in the plane of the sheet much more than grains in the (100) orientation. The growth of only (110) oriented grains of course would depend upon y110 being less than ?hkl, where hkl refers to any plane different from (110). The present paper is concerned with the application of the above ideas to secondary recrystallization to the (110) [001] texture in high-purity silicon iron. The matrix and secondary recrystallization textures and structures are defined and discussed. Observations of growth of nuclei for secondary recrystallization and of boundary interactions are included to provide direct information on the surface energy relationships between (110) and other (hkl) surfaces. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE As before, 2,4-6 high-purity iron and silicon were melted and cast in vacuum to provide an alloy containing 3 pct Si with less than 0.005 wt pct impurities. The oxygen content of the ingot was lower than in previous ingots, being approximately 3 ppm (by weight). The carbon content of this ingot may have been slightly higher than was found for previous ingots. The same rolling and annealing schedule used previously2 was followed in this study to obtain samples 0.012 in. (0.3 mm) thick. These samples were electropolished prior to annealing. After rolling and polishing, the oxygen content of the material was approximately 6 ppm; material used in the previous studies contained about twice this amount of oxygen.

Jan 1, 1961

By N. A. Gjostein

The self-diffusion coefficient D, for a surface near the (100) plane in copper was determined by means of the Mullins theory of thermal grooving, and was found to obey the Arrhenius relationship, and Do = 6.5 x 10&apos; sq cm per sec. Suppression of surface diffusion by chemisorbed impurities encounters difliculties as a satisfactory explanation for the large Q, and Do. Instead, a model is presented which indicates that Q,, as determined by a mass-transport technique, may involve both the energy needed to form an adsorbed atom from a ledge in the surface as well as that for the movement of the adsorbed atom.; LITERATURE reviews1-3 indicate that the mechanism of self-diffusion on metal surfaces is not clearly understood. The lack of experimental data on the temperature variation of the surface self-diffusion coefficient DJ has contributed greatly to this situation. Radioactive tracer techniques4-rn have been used to measure Ds, but for many years only Nicker-son and Parker8 had determined (for polycrystalline silver) an activation energy B, and a frequency factor Do for the surface self-diffusion process. Even in this case, a mechanism could not be clearly inferred because it was suspeted7 that a contribution from volume diffusion was not taken into account by the investigators. Some later work by Li and parkere on polycrystalline gold, in which they obtained essentially the same results as for silver and in which volume diffusion could be accounted for, seems to invalidate this criticism. In 1957, Mullins10&apos;11 developed the theory for the thermal grooving process. This advance has opened a new and promising technique for measuring the surface self-diffusion coefficient Ds. Recognizing that a thermal groove may form by several different mass transport processes, Mullins first consideredlo the cases where a) the groove forms by evaporation and condensation or b) by diffusion along the groove surface, in either case, in a system where a metal surface is in contact with only its dilute vapor phase. In a later paper," he extended the treatment to cases where the groove forms by volume diffusion into c) the solid phase or d) by mass transport through a passive gaseous phase at 1 atm pressure. The time dependence of the groove dimensions and the shape of the groove profiles predicted by Mullins&apos; treat-

Jan 1, 1962

By Herty, C. H.

Present-day interest in the question of "dirty steel" has arisen primarily from the increasingly rigid specifications on various grades of steel and from the growing conviction that non-metallic inclusions are the source of many of the difficulties in meeting these specifications. The importance of inclusions has unquestionably been over-emphasized in many cases, but on the other hand many unpublished instances could be recorded where all evidence pointed to inclusions as the primary cause for the failure of steel in rolling or in service. The solution of the problem of dirty steel is not a matter of a few years. There are almost numberless types of inclusions. They segregate in steel ingots in an entirely different manner from other impurities, and, at best, only a start has been made in developing correct analytical methods for their determination. Most of the writers in the field have expressed opinions rather than given facts, and so many variables enter into the manufacture of steel that a study of plant conditions is difficult unless definite facts on certain phases of the inclusion problem are available. This statement is not intended to convey the idea that little work has been done on this problem. On the other hand, the number of investigations has been large, but in most cases too many variables have been present to allow definite conclusions to be drawn. In the body of the text, reference to previous investigations is made at suitable points. Rather than burden the reader with a lengthy review of the literature on the general subject of inclusions, reference to the particular works pertinent to the subject matter of the bulletin has been discussed. Three excellent bibliographies b on the subject have been lately published: one by the Committee on

Jan 1, 1957

By M. E. Wadsworth, C. H. Pitt

Nickel corrosion in sulfuric acid solutions at elevated temperatures and oxygen wer-pressures was imestigated. Weight loss was 1inear with time and varied directly with oxygen concentration. Independent variation of the possible active species in solution indicated that the undissociated sulfuric acid molecule plays an important part in the corrosion mechanism. The rate determining step was considered to be the adsorption of oxygen on a site containing adsorbed H2SO4. THE tendency for a metal to go into solution depends on a number of factors some of which are: 1) the position of the metal in the electrochemical series; 2) the type and concentration of corroding species in solution; 3) the concentration of oxygen in solution; 4) the type of film formed at the liquid-metal interface; and 5) the physical state of the metal. The corrosion of a metal in an aqueous solution may be considered to be a heterogeneous reaction that occurs at the liquid-metal interface. The reaction is generally considered to occur as a result of electrochemical potential differences within the system. Little work has been published in the literature concerning the corrosion of pure nickel. A great deal has been publistled dealing with the experimental and theoretical aspects of the over-all corrosion process. Evans,1 Uhlig,&apos; and recently Todt 3 and Tomashoff,4 have published books which review the results of experiments which have been conducted on corrosion, and have developed some of the basic ideas of the more widely accepted theories of corrosion. Friend5 states that. nickel does not readily discharge hydrogen from any of the common nonoxidiz-ing acids and that a supply of some oxidizing agent is necessary for appreciable rates of corrosion. He further notes that at temperatures between atmospheric and close to boiling, corrosion rates tend to vary with concentration, temperature, and aeration in acid concentrations up to 25 pct. Whitman and Russel6 studied the effect of dissolved oxygen on a number of metals in acid solutions and found that oxygen accelerates the rate of corrosion of nickel in sulfuric acid. Flowers and Kelley7 in studying the action of dissolved CO, on electroplated nickel postulated that nickel dissolves as NiHCO3 in the presence of CO, and air. It was found that oxygen was necessary for corrosion to take place and that the rate increased with increasing amounts of oxygen in solution. Flowers and Kelley attributed the oxygen effect to cathodic depolarization. MacGillavry, Rosenbaum, and wensson&apos; determined metal solution potentials of nickel in various electrolytes. They found that nickel has no tendency to corrode in alkaline solutions in the presence or absence of air. In acid solutions in the presence of air, metal solution potential increases in the order of 1/2 v were observed. This increase was attributed to probable chemisorption of oxygen on the nickel surface and the corrosion mechanism suggested was the interaction of H+ ions with the nickel oxide formed at the surface. Delahay9 observed the reduction of oxygen on various metals. A polarograph was used to measure the course of the reaction. With some metals hydrogen peroxide was produced as an intermediate compound. However, nickel was not considered to be a hdrogen peroxide producer. Van Rysselberghe 10,11 and associates attributed the accelerating effect of carbon dioxide on the corrosion process to the presence of percarbonic acid produced in solution reacting with the hydrogen peroxide. The percarbonic acid can be reduced at less negative potentials than hydrogen peroxide and as a result accelerates the reaction. EXPERIMENTAL Since a complete description of the apparatus used can be obtained elsewhere,12&apos;13 no attempt will be made here to describe the equipment other than to note that it consisted essentially of an autoclave unit from which samples could be withdrawn periodically without disturbing the interior state of the autoclave. A titanium autoclave liner was used to protect the autoclave from the solution.

Jan 1, 1961

By R. G. Davies

WeERTMANI has shown that the high temperature steady state creep rate, i, in lead and indium-base alloys obeys an equation of the form where AH is the activation energy, o the applied stress, n the stress exponent, and R and T have their usual meanings. He observed a variation in n from 4.5 for pure metals to 3 for concentrated alloys, which he interpreted as due to Change in creep mechanism from the climb of dislocations in pure metals to a micro-creep mechanism in the alloys. The Cottrell-Jaswon microcreep mechanism of the moving dislocation taking its impurity atmosphere with it was considered to be the most likely process, although short-range order and the segregation of solute atoms to a stacking fault will also give a stress exponent of 3. Steady state creep has been investigated in a Au - 27 at. pct Cu alloy at temperatures above 1/2 TIM where TIM the absolute melting temperature. As the oxidation resistance of this alloy is excellent all tests were carried out in air with a furnace built to give a temperature variation of less than 1°C along the 60 mm gage length. A lever-arm arrangement applied the stress with a load being adjusted between each creep test to maintain a constant stress. As each test produced less than 0.5 pct creep strain, the variation in stress during the test was negligible. The creep strain was measured by a transducer at the end of one of the alloy-steel grips, with the out of balance potential being finally recorded on a variable speed chart recorder. A typical creep curve is shown in Fig. 1. The results, Fig. 2, confirm that n is nearer to 3 than to 4.5; the creep mechanism could be any of those given above. The activation energy, AH, which is independent of stress, is consistent with a diffusion controlled process; the activation energies for the self-diffusion of gold and for the diffusion of gold into Copper are both -45 kcal per ml., There is now considerable evidence, that, when the steady state creep is dependent upon diffusion, irrespective of the actual creep mechanism, the activation energy is independent of the stress. The author would like to acknowledge the financial assistance provided by the International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, and the Argentine Atomic Energy Commission.

Jan 1, 1962

Albin, B. R Billings, Mont. &apos;28 Amster, Nathan L 25 Broad St., New York, N. Y. &apos;28 Bache, Jules S 42 Broadway, New York, N. Y. &apos;28 Barrett, C. P 5338 Harper Ave., Chicago, 111. &apos;28 Bayless, William S Russ Bldg., San Francisco, Cal. &apos;28 Bean, Louis, H 60 E. 42nd St., New York, N. Y. &apos;28 Beatty, Ross J Room 604, 6 N. Clark St., Chicago, III. &apos;28 Benwell, Oswald F Hold Mags. &apos;28 Beymer, Albert S., V.P., Keystone National Bank Pittsburgh, Pa. &apos;28 Blumenthal, Hugo 44 Pine St., New York, N. Y. &apos;28 Boettcher. Charles Ideal Cement Bldg., Denver, Colo. &apos;28 Bowlus, Thomas H., Banker, Pres., Allen County State Bank Iola, Ran. &apos;28 Brown, Colvin B Chamber of Commerce, Washington, D. C. &apos;28 Burt, Maxwell Struthers Southern Pines, N. C. &apos;28

Jan 1, 1936

By J. F. Butler

Boron nitride, BN, has been identified in boron low-carbon steels by means of light microscopy, electron microscopy and diffraction, and chemical analysis. This boron nitride is responsible for strain aging suppression in these steels through the removal of nitrogen from solution; however, small oxidizing potentials which result in deboronization In the austenitic temperature range also result in boron nitride decomposition and the subsequent occurrence of nitrogen strain aging. THE addition of boron to low-carbon steels is an effective means of eliminating the detrimental effects of strain aging;&apos;,&apos; however, the mechanism by which boron suppresses strain aging has not been established. In studying the effect of heat treatment on the strain aging of boron low-carbon steels, Butler3 found that no detectable nitrogen was present in the ferrite solid solution after various heat treatments even though the total nitrogen analyses of the steels were 0.003 pct N. Apparently the function of boron in suppressing strain aging is the removal of nitrogen from solution to form a relatively stable second phase. A clue to the identity of this phase was found by Speight4 who extracted from an aluminum-killed boron steel an acid insoluble residue which contained boron and nitrogen in proportions corresponding to the compound, BN. Shyne and Morgan5 found that the addition of nitrogen to a hardenable boron steel lowered its hardenability in a manner which suggest-d the presence of nucleating particles (presumably BN) even at high austenitizing temperatures. Although this indirect evidence for the presence of boron nitride in boron steels has been found, the compound was not identified metallographically as a separate phase in these steels. Because boron has an affinity for oxygen comparable to that of silicon,5 boron steels must be thoroughly killed with aluminum in order to prevent the reaction of boron with oxygen.7 The affinity of boron for oxygen also is demonstrated through the ease of deboronization of a boron steel in an oxidizing atmosphere. Digges, Irish, and Carwile8 found that a mixture of wet natural gas and air caused both deboronixation and decarburization of a boron steel at 1900°F. The boron content rose at the surface of the steel due to the formation of boron oxide. Shyne and Morgan9 encountered deboronization at much lower oxygen potentials; loss of boron occurred in steels treated at 1750o F under argon purified to 0.0014 pct 0, even though decarburization did not occur. Boron oxide, B2O3, is much more stable than the nitride, BN, as is indicated by the standard free energies of formation at 980oC: -235 kcal per mol of B2O3 (liquid) and -28 kcal per mol of BN (crystal). It is evident that the oxygen potential must be kept low in the presence of BN in order to prevent its decomposition and the subsequent formation of B2O3&apos; The purpose of the work described in this paper was to identify the nitride phase responsible for the removal of nitrogen from solution and to study its stability under oxidizing conditions. IDENTIFICATION OF BN In order to identify the phase containing boron and nitrogen, several alloys high in boron and nitrogen were made up in a small vacuum furnace. In alloys 3 and 4, Table I, electrolytic iron was used as a charge material. Boron additions were made in the form of 18 pct B ferro-boron after the iron was molten. In the case of alloy 3, the charge was solidified at this point; for alloy 4, nitrogen at 1 atm pressure was admitted over the melt before it was

Jan 1, 1962

By H. G. Botset

A KNOWLEDGE of the water content of producing sands is becoming of increasing importance to the petroleum industry. It is now a generally accepted fact that practically all oil sands contain some free water. Recent experiments1 have shown that an appreciable fraction of the pore space of a sand may be filled with water while oil production from this sand is water-free. Crowther and Haines,2 in experiments on electro-endosmosis in soils, reported that there was no endosmotic flow of water when the moisture content of the soil was 14 per cent or less, indicating that the moisture content of the soil below 14 per cent was held by dif-ferent forces than the water content above this value. This result is confirmed qualitatively by Dunlap,1 who found that "as the volume of water in the voids exceeds approximately 15 per cent of the pore volume, the permeability of the core to kerosene is markedly reduced." The author3 has also found in other experiments that the gas flow through a water-saturated sand reaches essentially 100 per cent when the pores of the sand still contain from 10 to 15 per cent water. The velocities of the flowing fluid in the experiments cited were comparatively high, so that in practice one may expect, at lower fluid velocities, an even higher moisture content of the sands with water-free oil or gas production. Thus a knowledge of the water content of oil-field sands becomes of con-siderable importance in estimating petroleum and gas reserves, and effi-ciency of fluid recoveries from depleted reservoirs. Rapid and reasonably accurate methods of measuring the water content of sand cores have not been described so far in any literature that has come to our attention.4 The method described below is devel-oped from methods that have been used for some time to measure the water content of alcohols.5,6,7 It is an application of the fact that in the presence of certain organic liquids such as kerosene, carbon tetrachloride, xylol, etc., water and alcohol are only partly miscible. This relation-ship has been used for some time in the study of gasoline-alcohol mixtures where the presence of small quantities of water affect the solubility of

Jan 1, 1938

By W. F. Cloud

The data and information compiled under Part I of this report are the results of experiments performed in the petroleum engineering laboratory under the supervision of W. F. Cloud, Associate Professor of Petroleum Engineering and William Schriever, Professor of Physics, University of Oklahoma. Problems Being Studied Most of the time has been spent in trying to determine the rate of flow and pressure gradient in a 4-in. flow tube 10 ft. long, which was packed with sand of various grain sizes. To date, only two kinds of sand have been packed in this tube: 60 to 80-mesh Canadian river sand, 60 to 80-mesh and 80 to 100-mesh Simpson sand. The original intention was to follow the same procedure and use the same types of crude under identical saturation pressures of both air and gas, as well as unsaturated (dead) oil, flowing the various crudes through several different sizes of both Canadian river and Simpson (Wilcox) sands, but lack of time has prevented such an intensive study of the problem. Some additional time has been spent flowing saturated and unsaturated crudes, similar to those used in the 4-in. tube, through 1-in. tubes, one of which was 2 ft. long and one 5 ft. long. The results obtained have been checked against those obtained by using the 4-in. tube, to obtain the relation of diameter and length of tube to rate of flow in similar sands. Laboratory Equipment Saturation Tank.—A heavy steel cylindrical saturation tank, capacity about 42 gal. was mounted on a platform of bricks, then a galvanized tin temperature bath was built around the saturation tank. This contained

Jan 1, 1930

By L. Zwell, H. A. Wriedt

In describing their procedure for measuring the lattice parameters of solid solutions, Abrahamson and Lopata report (p. 77) the final heat treatment of their alloy specimens as "700°C for 100 hr, followed by a furnace cool". The isothermal part of this treatment may be expected to precipitate solute in excess of the stable a solid-solution limit at 700°C; the subsequent slow cooling is likely to reduce the dissolved solute still further. Fig. 1 (upper) presents the data for titanium alloys so he;rt-treated and shows the lattice parameters of solid solutions containing up to 3.5 at. pct Ti; Fig. 17 (lower) shows 2 at. pct Ti as the solubility limit in a iron at 700°C. Figs. 1 and 17 are thus incompatible. The paper contains comparable incon~patibilities for zirconium alloys, for niobium alloys, and for tantalum alloys. The final heat treatment at 700°C may also be responsible for the anomalous "knee" in the lattice-parameter data for nickel alloys, Fig. 3. The "knee" composition is located near the 700°C limit of the stable a solid-solution field;37 alloys of the experimental composition range with more nickel than the "knee" composition are two-phase at 700 C and prolonged heat treatment of them at 700°C would tend to produce inhomogeneity rather than homogeneity. In Figs. 4 and 7, the composition ranges of the zirconium, hafnium, and niobium alloys examined terminate at alloy concentrations of 0.1 to 0.2 at. pct. These metals form very stable oxides and their partial removal from solid solution in iron by impurity oxygen may be expected. We believe that the authors should have reported the procedure by which they distinguished the amounts of alloying elements in solution and in oxide. The diagrams pertaining to copper in Figs. 3 and 18 (lower) are almost certainly incorrect. Three recent investigations of this system38-40 all substantially agree on the solubility of copper in a iron, finding it to be much larger than that reported by Abrahamson and Lopata. The change of the lattice parameter with composition reported by Abrahamson and Lopata is too large by a factor of three to five, as seen by comparison with the findings of other investigators.41738 Moreover, the authors violate, in Fig. 18, the accepted Fe-Cu constitution diagram37 by ignoring the eutectoid at about 850°C.

Jan 1, 1967