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PUGET SOUND SECTION SIMON H. ASH, Chairman, I. F. LAUCKS, Vice Chairman, CHARLES SIMENSTAD, Sec.-Treas., 425 Lyon Building, Seattle, Wash. GLENVILLE A. COLLINS, JOHN N. POTT. The Puget Sound Section met at the Arctic Club, Seattle, Wash., on Jan. 20, 1917. Sixteen members and five guests were present. Dinner having been served, the meeting was called to order. A letter from secretary of Associated Engineering Societies was read, requesting payment of this section's assessment to the quarterly budget, and upon motion it was voted that the Secretary-Treasurer be instructed to pay this assessment. It was moved and carried that this section join with the Chemical Society in a meeting. At the, close of the business meeting, Mr. Asa C. Baldwin gave an illustrated lecture on the "Alaska Boundary Survey." On Feb. 24, the Puget Sound Section again held a meeting at the Arctic Club, 16 members and three guests being present. Chester F. Lee, as member of a committee representing this section in the joint council of the Associated Engineering Societies, reported that by lots it had been decided that the term of service of said committee would be as follows: Chester F. Lee, two years; George. Watkin Evans, one year. Following adjournment of the business meeting, Prof. Joseph Daniels, of the University of Washington, delivered a very interesting lecture on "Milling Practice of The Alaska-Castineau Mining Company." CHAS. SIMENSTAD, Secretary.

Jan 5, 1917

By A. E. Schuetz, A. E. Roswell, W. R. Hibbard

THE drawn wire texture of body-centered cubic iron,' tungsten,' and molybdenum~ as been determined to be a [110] direction parallel to the wire axis. The purpose of this study is to extend the available information on body-centered cubic wire textures to other metals and alloys. Wires were produced using hand wire rolls and dies as given in Table I. In addition, attempts were unsuccessful to draw wires from chromium, vanadium (Vanadium Corp. of America), and tungsten (Cleveland Tungsten Inc.). Although it is known that wires can be made from these materials, suitable techniques were not readily adaptable. Where necessary, wires were polished and etched to form flat ribbons 0.005 to 0.007 in. thick, and transmission X-ray patterns were taken using molybdenum radiation with the specimen tilted 0 degrees from the perpendicular toward the beam to critically cover the wire axis. Analyses were made of (110), (002), and (112) reflection circles. In all cases reflection maxima indicated the texture to be a single [1101 deformation fiber, as illustrated by Fig. 1 for molybdenum. In the case of the hot-worked ß brass, a second texture, [loo], was also found, but this is believed to be the result of recrystallization since it has been reported for re-crystallized molybdenum wires' and it was not present in the cold-drawn ß brass. The difference in drawability between the 51.92 pct Cu ß brass and the 62.5 pct Cu ß brass (containing some grain boundary a due to incomplete quenching) is quite striking, since the latter could be cold worked readily while the former had to be hot worked to avoid cracking. Summary The deformation texture of drawn body-centered cubic wires of ß brass, iron, molybdenum, niobium, and tantalum is essentially a single [110] fiber as predicted by theory.' Acknowledgment The authors wish to thank the suppliers of the metals listed in the text, and the Grant-in-Aid from the Research Fund of the Society of the Sigma Xi and Scientific Research Society of America which made possible the purchase of X-ray equipment.

Jan 1, 1952

By Julian Avery

IN its dual role of pig-iron smelter and gas producer, the blast furnace is a remarkably satisfactory and efficient apparatus. Many metallurgists and engineers have pointed out, however, that since the primary function of the blast furnace is to produce pig iron at the lowest possible cost, its function as a gas producer should be subordinated to this primary pur-pose. During the past 10 years or more, improvements in blast-furnace technique and economy have, in fact, been directed primarily to increasing efficiency in the use of the reducing power of the gases produced by com-bustion of coke at the tuyeres, to reduce iron ore within the furnace. The net over-all result is a decrease in the fuel value of the top gas per unit of volume, and per ton of pig iron, which is evidently more than offset in value by the corollary saving in coke and the possibility of increased furnace capacity, for otherwise there would be no point in making such improvements. The purpose of the present paper is to suggest that, while progress has been made in this direction, there is another approach to the problem of increasing the chemical and thermal efficiency of the blast furnace in its primary role as a pig-iron smelter, which appears to offer possibilities of improvement in over-all economy of a different order of magnitude than results thus far obtained by the use of other expedients. The present argument is based in large part upon the hypothesis that the effi-ciency and economics of pig-iron smelting are seriously and adversely affected by the phenomenon known as "solution loss," and that the problem of solution loss can be successfully attacked by increasing the over-all pressure; i.e., the "top pressure" under which the furnace is operated. It is indicated that pressure operation may also be expected to result in concomitant benefits, which may be summed up as generally improved operating conditions, together with a substantial saving in fuel and/or a substantial increase in furnace capacity.

Jan 1, 1938

Jan 1, 1920

By Guy R. Johnson

It is now generally acknowledged that the successful management of a modern foundry necessarily embraces a knowledge of chemistry, and especially a thorough acquaintance with the effect of the various metalloids on cast-iron, in order to

Jan 1, 1897

By C. M. Ball

The very considerable progress made during the past three years in the crushing and concentration of ores, lends special interest at the present time to any means of a more efficient character than such as are already generally known and in use, for the rapid and regular reduction of large quantities of the harder and heavier grades of mineral-bearing rock. Such means are of exceptional importance in connection with the preparation of iron-ore for separation by the magnetic process, since in this operation the capability of dealing with large volumes of material and of securing by ready means of adjustment, a granulation of the material under treatment to any required mesh or fineness, is of the greatest possible value. With these, however, must be coupled the further considerations of the amount of power expended for the work done, and the wear and tear, represented in the cost for renewal of parts of the crushing machinery, per ton of material reduced to a given degree of fineness. In general terms it may be stated that the operation of a crushing train, capable of reducing an ore-rock of average density and hardness, from the condition of mine lumps to pass 1/16-inch screenopenings at the rate of 20 tons per hour, should not call for an expenditure of more than 125 horse-power, and that the wear and tear of the crushing machinery, all told, should not exceed 2 cents per ton. In the design of a crushing-train for an ore-dressing plant, there are, moreover, considerations of great importance which relate to the simplicity or complexity of construction and arrangement, the wear and tear of few or many elements, the easy ability or difficulty of maintaining the working adjustment of the various elements of the train, and the number of hands required for the operation of the system. With these points in view, it is thought that the Cummings ore-

Jan 1, 1893

By B. Stoughton, H. O. Hofman

Before examining a fire-clay in the labori~tory for its resistance to heat or to fluxes, the sample is always ground to an impalpable powder. But when the clay is actually used for the manufacture of bricka, blocks, pots, etc., it is not ground to a uniform size, the particles varying from coarse grains to the finest slimes. The natural inference is that the tests with finely-ground substances mill give lower results than if the materials are tested just as they are going to be used. The, following experiments were made to find out how far this inference is justified. The method employed for fusion was Seger's direct method,* and, for fluxing, the modified Bischof method, described in the paper on that subject presented at the present meeting, The first question to be decided was, how large the test-cones ought to be made, to include representative proportions of the diflerentrsized particles colnposing the mixture. This was subjected to a screenanalysis with the following results :

Jan 1, 1899

By John R. Lotz

A team of American experts is tackling a whole nations's problems, under the banner of a seven-year plan evolved by the Iranians themselves.

Jan 7, 1950

By Pétroleur Maatschappiju, N. V. de Bataafsche

Jan 1, 1939

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Jan 1, 1942

By Pétroleur Maatschappiju, N. V. de Bataafsche

Jan 1, 1939

By S. W. Parr

THE extent to which geological carbonization has taken place in the process of coal formation is a fundamental factor in all considerations relating to classification, oxidation, deterioration, spontaneous combustion, and especially in all considerations relating to destructive distillation having as an objective the production of marketable coke and by-products. Moreover, it may be readily shown that a. striking relationship exists between the geological decomposition or geological carbonization processes and those artificially produced by heat. This may be well illustrated by bringing again to view some of the charts more commonly met with 25 years ago, as in Fig. 1. 1 FIG. 1. In this figure the line of geological decomposition by decay, pressure, etc., because of its relation to the line of carbonization by destructive distillation, becomes of special significance when we attempt to formulate any system of classification which shall be reasonably scientific and at

Jan 2, 1926

By Oswald J. Heinrich

THIS question having been repeatedly raised, and particularly revived in a discussion at the last meeting of the Institute, I beg to submit the following remarks, based partly upon personal experience, partly upon the results of large works in Europe, establishing, years ago, the practicability of certain methods, which may therefore be considered to have passed the stage of mere experiment. Before entering upon the merits of one system or the other, it is indispensable to lay down some recognized principles, which ought to serve as guides, in arriving at fair judgments in questions of this character. In a profession like that of mining, locally so much influenced by combinations of circumstances too various to mention, it is difficult to do more than lay down the main features of a system based upon general laws and recognized facts, leaving the details to the sound judgment and experience of the engineer, who, by virtue of his education, ought to be able to make such choice and such modifications in the plans of a mine as the particular case demands. Mineral resources, in some countries the sole property of the owner of the soil, in others controlled by the strong hand of a government, are nevertheless a gift of nature, in which, indirectly, the whole of the human race has as real an interest as the immediate owner himself. This interest requires, at least, that no unnecessary waste of

Jan 1, 1874

By Sterling G. Valentine

Until within late years, the preparation of sulphurous ores for the blast-furnace has received comparatively little attention. After the first improvement made on the old style of heap-roasting and roasting between walls, there has followed an almost general adoption of the Gjers kiln or some modification thereof, and the majority of iron-masters have seemed perfectly satisfied with so much progress. However, the Westman kiln was developed in Sweden, and other gas-roasters for sulphurous ores have been since constructed. They are in use on the continent of Europe and in America to a limited extent. The following experiments were made in order to furnish additional information as to the proper conditions for the elimination of sulphur from ores where it is present as sulphide of iron, FeS2 I desire here to acknowledge the Kindness of Dr. Franklin Menges, of the laboratory of Pennsylvania College, at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, for lending his valuable aid in carrying out a part of these experilnents and analyses. In the first series of these experiments, pure, roughly-pulverized pyrites crystals were used, containing 53.42 per cent. of' sulphur. They were made with a view to determine the effect on pyrites, of heat alone, in various degrees of intensity and duration, air being altogether excluded. The heats at a low temperature were made in glass combustion-tubes, sealed at the end, where the pyrites to be tested were placed, and with only a small opening at the opposite end. Although not allowing circulation, this arrangement still permitted a part of the evolved sulphur to escape. The heats at high temperatures were made in Hessian and graphite crucibles, tightly luted, every precaution being taken to exclude air. The temperatures attained are given approximately, and are as nearly correct as it was possible to estimate them, using Pouillet's scale as a guide.

Jan 1, 1890

By C. W. Washburne

Continued discussion of the paper Of ROSWELL H. JOHNSON, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1015, and printed in Bulletin No. 98, February; 1915, pp. 221 to 226. See also Bulletin No. 101, May, 1915, pp. 1157 to 1162, and No. 103, July, 1915, pp. 1449 to 1450. C. W. WASHBURNE, New York, N. Y. (communication to the Secretary*).-Mr. Johnson recognizes that connate waters must be driven, outward toward the earth's surface. He considers the ascent due to the settling and packing of the underlying sediments and to the formation of gas within the rocks, supplemented by abyssal pressures. The origin of the methane in the sedimentary strata probably is not simple. There are three possible modes of origin: (1) as marsh gas formed near the surface and entrapped in the sediments; (2) from abyssal sources; (3) by the decomposition of organic matter buried in the sediments. The abyssal source is generally negligible, and in all cases doubtful. The third origin is the most important in the gas fields. A fourth mode of origin, by the dissociation of liquid hydrocarbons, frequently has been suggested, but it is improbable, because crude oils are exothermic. Therefore they have no tendency, to split or decompose at low temperatures, as do endothermic substances, such as coal, which is geologically by the loss of methane, water, and carbon dioxide. This cannot happen to a hydrocarbon until its temperature of dissociation (" cracking point") is reached, which is over 250'.C. for the most easily cracked hydrocarbons and over 400° C. for others. Engler says that the dissociation of fats and waxes into oils is an endothermic process, thereby unconsciously nullifying his own theory of the dissociation of these substances at low temperatures. However, recently I have found reason to think that heat is liberated by the disruption of the molecules of fats and waxes, as it is in the molecular decomposition of the substances of wood, coal, etc. If this tentative opinion is correct, and Engler wrong, then it seems that the Engler-Höfer hypothesis of the origin of oil becomes not only possible, but even probable.

Jan 9, 1915

By J. Kinkead, R. M. Sherman, E. M. Frizzel

A recent research study performed under US Bureau of Mines Contract No. J0199088 "Modular Irrigation Equipment for Reclaimed Strip Mined Lands" investigated the feasibility of irrigation as a reclamation tool in the arid and semi-arid regions of the Western United States. Review of mined land characteristics, evaluation of irrigation systems, and assistance from the mining industry resulted in the design of two strategies for the implementation of reclamation irrigation using solid set systems. It is not the intent of this paper to suggest the generalizations made on the basis of a six state area can extend to the design of an irrigation system for a specific mine site. The purpose is to present two irrigation strategies that may be implemented with solid set irrigation in this six state area. The reader should note that the following is the result of research and, therefore, original concepts were presented. The ultimate validity of these concepts will be determined by future field tests.

Jan 1, 1983

Jan 1, 1908

By J. P. Zannaras

If we assume that testing of the model started at time t1, that time t2 was the instant at which the elastic limit of the material was passed at the points of the maximum stress, and that at time t3 the failure of the model was completed as shown in the typical photograph (Fig. I), then actually the photograph shows the final results of what took place between time t2 and t3. By the principle of similitude all conclusions drawn from the behavior of the model were applicable and valid for actual mine roofs up to the time t2 after time t2 motions and friction came into play during the destruction of the model. The events between t2 and t3 and the photograph itself are not representative of the events expected in an actual mine roof unless corrections imposed by the principle of similitude are made. It can therefore be stated that all conclusions and observations of the author from the photographs are applicable only to his small-scale experiments and not to actual mine roofs. Without investigation of the true stresses or the combined maximum stress induced in the beds it has been assumed by the author that failure occurred solely due to bending stress caused by loading of the beds. (The author states that D was taken to be the theoretical strain given by elementary beam theory.) Fig. 1 shows that the beds were clamped together. This clamping was necessary to prevent slipping of the beds due to the horizontal shear. However, this clamping caused an uncontrolled and undertermined com-pressive stress S at the end of the beds, and this com-pressive stress caused a true tensile stress ?S (? PoiS-son ratio). This true tensile stress combined with the tensile stress produced at the end of the beds due to loading (fixed beam uniformly loaded), and the horizontal shear which is maximum at the end appears to be the most probable maximum stress produced in the beds. It is therefore evident that the author in performing this experiment has introduced stresses in the model not existing or dissimilar to actual mine roofs, and therefore his conclusions may be applicable to his small-scale experiments but inapplicable to actual mine roofs. Louis A. Panek (author's reply)—The discusser's difficulty is related to mechanics of materials rather than similitude. The effect of time did not enter into the tests in any way, being simply excluded from consideration in this study, because all quantitative results entering into the design equations are based on measured (between time t1 and time t2) bending strains that are well below the breaking strain (i.e., in the elastic range) for the model material. Time does not become a significant factor until the rock stress reaches 80 to 90 pct of the breaking stress." The objective of this investigation was not to predict that bolted roof will fail after time t, but was instead to develop a safe roof, that is, roof in which the bending strain is much less than (say less than 50 pct of) the breaking strain. The models tested to failure had no direct bearing on the design equations. Although for some rocks time may influence the magnitude of stress or strain at which fracture occurs, breaking stress or breaking strain values were not employed for any purpose in this investigation. Tests to failure were made only to obtain additional evidence regarding the behavior of the bolted laminae' as evinced by the locations of the cracks. As stated in the last paragraph of the paper, if one wishes to predict the time or stress conditions for which the roof will fail, additional information is required. The reason for clamping the laminae is to make them behave liked clamped beams, which closely approximate the clamped-plate condition of the actual mine roof beds (Ref. 5, p. 1; Ref. 6). The writer has previously demonstrated that the bending stresses induced by centrifugal loading in a clamped model beam are in agreement with those predicted by theory;' hence clamping has no significant effect on the bending ,trains measured during a test. Moreover, actual ,in, roof beds are likewise subject to a clamping effect due to weight of superincumbent strata carried by the pillars or ribs on each side of the opening. It is emphasized that this study was restricted to evaluating only the reinforcing effect produced by the bolts. Procedures employed in the experiments and in the data analysis were such as to deliberately exclude the effects of other factors. The objections offered are therefore invalid,

Jan 1, 1957

By J. B. Mackintosh

Some months ago I received a sample of a highly crystalline product occurring in the hearth of the shaft-furnace used in smelting the roasted niccoliferous pyrrhotite at Mr. Joseph Wharton's works near the Gap Mine, Lancaster County, Pa. Mr. Wharton first observed this product in cavities in the concretions in these furnaces about the year 1870, and published a description of it in that year.* Thinking that it might show some analogy to meteoric iron, he sent the present sample to Mr. George a F. Kunz, who turned it over to me, with the request that I should analyze it at my convenience. The results do not show the expected analogy, because the sulphur in meteoric iron is combined as FeS., while in this product there is only one-sixth the necessary amount of sulphur, which, however, seems to be combined with all the metallic elements present, forming a sub-sulphide of definite composition. I am informed by Mr. Wharton that he has had for a long time the sample which I have analyzed, and that it probably is about the same age as that which he first described. It is worthy of note that the material does not show any signs of oxidation, but that the crystals preserve a brilliant metallic lustre. The first two analyses, made by Mr. J. Voigt, are those given by

Jan 1, 1888

By Ernest O. Kartinen

This report is the accumulation of eight years of experience on only one small phase in the business of oil production. It is not intended as a final report but rather as a progress report dealing with the internal corrosion of oil field dehydrating tanks. The corrosion of dehydrating tanks continues to be a problem in the production of crude oil. The deterioration hy corrosion of these tanks falls into three general classifications: (1) Atmospheric corrosion of exterior areas, (2) corrosion of the underside of deck and the rafters and top area of the upper row of staves in that part of the tank which is known as the vapor space, and (3) corrosion of the bottom and shell areas, and the steam coils which are normally immersed in water and thus exposed to the corrosive action of the water. Atmospheric corrosion is primarily a paint problem, and has been omitted in this discussion. The corrosion in the vapor space, in this company's experience, which has been of great concern only in one area. has also been omitted in this discussion. The third, and most troublesome type of corrosion, and the one with which this report deals, is that which occurs in the water-exposed areas of dehydrating tanks, and, to a lesser degree. in some stock tanks. The operating temperature of these waters varies from 80°F to 160°F and the salt counts run from a few thousand to as high as 25.000 parts per million. Corrosion in these tanks occurs in three forms: (1) pits, (2) ringworm type of attack along the vertical and horizontal bolt seams, and (3) as a general attack, spread over a wide area. Steam Coils In dehydrating tanks, our experience has been that the steam coils are the first to show signs of corrosion, and then the shell and bottom areas. This action is not uniform throughout this company's operations. Some installations have coil troubles with very little tank trouble, and some show just the opposite. But in the majority of cases the coils are the more seriously corroded areas. This may be partly due to the fact that we have tried by periodic application to keep a protective coating on the interior areas of the tanks, and some protection has been afforded by these coatings. Through the years several types of hot and cold coatings have been tried with many various methods of cleaning the steel, ranging from use of cleaning solvents to hot and cold Oakite washes, as well as sandblasting. Although experience has shown that a longer life expectancy of a coating is possible after a very thorough steel cleaning job, it has still been necessary to recoat these tanks at least every two or three years. Until a few years ago, vertical spiral steam coil bundles were installed when the tanks were originally erected. When these coils needed replacement, in some cases within 18 months, it was necessary to remove a couple of shell staves to accomplish this task. This required a down time period of several days and was often very inconvenient to the production operations of the leases. This problem was considered on the basis that the coils were expendable, and thus. to eliminate any unnecessary down time when changing coils, the vertical spiral coils were discarded in favor of horizontal flat coils which could be taken in and out of the tanks by way of the cleanout openings, and put together with unions. This made a fairly easily replaceable and repairable coil. But it was still very much of a nuisance when repairs were necessary. Efforts to increase the useful life of the dehydrating tanks led to the adoption of galvanized tanks at an increased initial cost. The zinc coating was depended upon for protection and no other protective coatings were applied. In July, 1944. during the development of a new lease, a 3-ring 1,500 bbl, black iron water tank was converted into a dehydrating tank with steam coils to handle the new production. This tank was coated inside with a cold, brushed-on coating, for protection against corrosion. After approximately 18 months of service, holes developed in the tank and the steam coils. The tank was emptied and cleaned for repairs. The coils were so badly pitted that it was felt advisable to replace them. Coating Becomes Loose Inspection of the tank showed the protective coating to be still in place but loose, and numerous blisters were in evidence. A closer inspection showed that the interior of this tank was so badly pitted under the coating that any further attempt to use the tank was inadvisable. This tank was therefore discarded and a new galvanized tank ordered and set up at considerable expense and inconvenience. In April, 1946, another dehydrating tank installation was made on an adjoining lease. This installation consisted of a 1,500 bbl. 3-ring galvanized tank with two sets of flat steam coils 12 in. and 24 in. up from the bottom. In September, 1947. seventeen months after installation. salt showed up in the boiler feed water. When the dehydrating tank was opened and cleaned, the steam coils were found to be badly pitted — several holes having penetrated through the wall of the pipe. New coils were installed.

Jan 1, 1950