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By C. A. Hope, H. B. Wishart

THE number and severity of surface imperfections on rolled slabs, assuming the reception of uniformly good quality heats from the open hearths, depend upon a number of conditions associated with heating and rolling of steel in the primary mills. While there are other elements that have an effect on surface quality, rather than make this paper too lengthy the discussion of mill processing variables will be limited to three factors in order to illustrate their effect on slab surface quality: 1—amount of reduction between ingot and slab, 2—slab finishing temperatures, and 3—influence of roll changes. Measurement of the percentage of surface removed by scarfing on the flat surfaces of the slabs was used for evaluating quality in this study. A study of this nature must be made on slabs that are inspected and conditioned under uniform conditions and standards. In order to be certain that steel of the best possible steelmaking quality was received at the rolling mills, a low carbon deep drawing grade of rimmed steel, made for sheet mill application and manufactured under carefully controlled open hearth practices, was selected. Use of this particular steel thereby reduced the steel quality factor as a possible source of variation. The measure of slab surface quality is the amount of surface removed by scarfing during yard conditioning and is expressed as percentage of surface removal. This percentage was estimated by experienced personnel to uniform standards and it should be noted that these percentage figures are representative only for the grade selected and under the rigid inspection standards to which the slabs were subjected. Surface removal is a matter of concern because the imperfections, if undetected, often are the cause of poor surface quality in the finished product and their removal, by conditioning, add to the total plant costs. The data was collected at various times over a period of six months and, with normal weekly fluctuation in the level of quality, it is to be expected that for any period of sampling there will be some variation in the plotted results. The type of defect that is responsible for most slab conditioning at Gary Steel Works is a light angular surface break. This defect is usually interconnected to form large defective areas and occurs mainly on the bottom half of the slab on both sides. This type of defect is illustrated in Fig. 1, showing a bottom portion of a slab; while a close-up of an area of the same slab where the surface breaks were found is given in Fig. 2. The large dark areas are heat patterns, results of hot stacking and cooling. Independent of these light breaks, but sometimes associated with them, are larger and deeper isolated breaks. However, most of the surface removal occurs from conditioning the large areas of small breaks. There are also occasional scabs of varying degrees of severity but these are relatively infrequent. The slabs are generally free of rolled-in scale. Ingot to Slab Reduction vs Quality Some ten years ago at Gary Steel Works, the minimum slab ingot thickness was 30 in. Subsequent operating and other quality features indicated the desirability of using an ingot of reduced thickness with the result that a series of molds that would produce a 22 in. thick ingot with various widths was adopted as standard. A minimum number of the thicker mold sets are still used. From the standpoint of quality difficulties from pipe and segregation, the smaller ingots are an improvement. From a quality surface viewpoint, the slab product from the thin molds requires approximately twice the surface removal as the slab product from the thick molds. This is shown in Fig. 3 where the percentage of surface removal is plotted against slab product rolled from

Jan 1, 1956

Jan 1, 1924

Jan 1, 1943

Jan 1, 1943

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Jan 1, 1942

By AIME AIME

THE many kinds of iron and steel may be grouped into two general classes. First, there are the common steels and cast irons, made in enormous tonnages each year and used for the construction of buildings, ships and bridges, for pipe, for reinforced concrete highways, for the so-called tin cans, and by the railroads and other industries for which a low cost material is suitable. Second, there are the alloy steels and alloy cast irons, which are alloys of the chemical element iron and one or more of a large number of special elements such as manganese, silicon, nickel, chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum. Alloy steels and irons are more costly than the common grades but their higher cost is, for many applications, justified by their superior properties, leading to ultimate economies or other advantages. They may be harder, stronger, tougher, or more resistant to rusting than the common varieties, and so are extensively used for tools, for ornamental work on buildings and in the automotive, aircraft, and other industries for, which the higher cost is compensated for by the higher quality.

Jan 1, 1933

By C. E. Birchenall, R. H. Condit, M. J. Brabers

In the oxidation of pure iron above 700°C the overall rate is determined mainly by the rapid growth of wiistite, through which iron ions can diffuse rapidly.' Nickel added to the iron progressively decreases the stable range of composition of wustite.' When enough nickel is added to eliminate wiistite as a stable phase, the spinel is the fast growing phase. This investigation was undertaken to test the hypothesis that nickel substituting for iron in magnetite might decrease the rate of spinel growth by reducing the iron mobility. Nickel ferrite boules grown by the flame fusion process were purchased from the Linde Co. Chemical analysis gave an atomic ratio of iron to nickel of 2.88 and showed no other cations. They were cut into discs and ground to give flat, parallel faces. The experimental procedure employed was like that of Eisen and Birchenall in which the distribution of radioactivity diffused in from a vapor deposited surface layer was determined by counting the residual activity through a series of ground faces. The diffusivities were calculated in a manner consistent with the requirements discussed by Condit and BirchenallP The details will be given in connection with a more extensive spinel diffusion study now in progress. The results of the measurements are shown in the figure in comparison with earlier data on magnetite1 and zinc ferrite. The uncertainties arising from scatter in the activity vs distance relationship and uncertainties in the temperatures are shown by flags. Despite the scatter it is clear that substitution of a considerable part of the iron in magnetite by nickel, in this case about one third decreases the iron mobility substantially. sachs' determination of the distribution of iron and nickel in scales on iron-nickel alloys appears to show that nickel is less mobile than iron in the spinel layer. It is evident, therefore, that nickel plays several roles in reducing the oxidation rate of iron-nickel alloys. 1) It reduces progressively the stability range of wiistite. ' 2) It reduces progressively the stability range of the iron-nickel spinel phase in terms of the variation in cation to anion ratio.' 3) As shown in this investigation, it reduces the cation mobility in the spinel phase which is the faster growing phase in the absence of wiistite. The fe was obtained from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The research was supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research (ARDC) under contract number AF 18(600)-967.

Jan 1, 1961

By H. De Cizancourt

Peche1bronn.—So far Pechelbronn is the only producing district. Figures are given in Table 2 covering the main features of the field, but these figures call for the following remarks: First, Pechelbronn should not' be considered as a single unit, it appears, but as a succession of small oil fields, each of which is affected by very variable conditions. Consequently, certain figures concerning production per acre, production per acre-foot, pressure conditions and thicknesses of oil sands would be so misleading that they have been omitted here. Second, as regards production methods, attention is drawn especially to the fact that 42 per cent of the oil is extracted by the use of shafts and galleries and the remainder by pumping wells. Exploitation, formerly confined to Oligocene sands, has been extended recently to Jurassic and Triassic oil-bearing formations. Gabian.—This small oil field, discovered in 1924, is almost exhausted. Exploitation to date is restricted to three wells. There were no drilling activities in 1933. Exploration.—During 1933, two exploration holes have been started in France. The first, in the vicinity of Lavelanet (Ariége) on the Dreuille anticline, has reached the depth of 2400 ft,.; the second, in the Autun Permian Basin, is drilling at 1300 feet. Northern Africa Morocco.—Drilling operations have been on a large scale in Morocco. In the Gharb district (Souk el Arba area), the deepest well was abandoned in 1933 at 7014 ft. Small irregular productive horizons were encountered in the Miocene at shallow depth, oil and gas showing in the Eocene, but no commercial oil field has been discovered. In the Djebel Tselfat, near Petitjean, a small production of oil was obtained from a Jurassic horizon. In the meantime deeper formations are being explored and a new structure in the vicinity is being tested. In Eastern Morocco, a well is drilling near Taza. Production in Morocco, about 2400 bbl., has not been listed on Table 2, owing to its origin—exploration wells.

Jan 1, 1934

Jan 1, 1920

By Arthur C. Simmons

The Pennsylvania-grade oil industry suffered a serious decline in 1938, which can be largely accounted for by the decrease in the use of lubricating oil. Production was considerably lower than in previous years and prices were very much lower. Operating profits undoubtedly were lower than the year 1933, for the average price of Bradford crude in 1938 was $1.898 as compared with $1.86 in 1933, and the difference in average price of $0.04 per barrel was more than offset by increased operating costs and taxes. Bradford Field Production in the Bradford field in the state of Pennsylvania averaged 36,759 bbl. per day in 1938 as compared with 41,300 bbl. in 1937. The decline in average daily production of 4541 bbl. can be attributed to low market price and pipe-line proration rather than to the actual physical capacity of the field. Pipe-line proration was in effect for the last eight months of the year and the daily average production per month fluctuated between a maximum of 41,852 bbl. per day in March 1938 and a minimum of 33,649 bbl. per day in November. Production figures for Bradford field have been corrected to include only the parts of the Bradford field that arc within the state of Pennsylvania, but the well-completion data for the Bradford field cannot be segregated and include those of the entire Bradford field, part of which is in Sew York state. Production from the Bradford field was obtained almost wholly by water-flooding and no radically new methods or practices occurred. Intensive research work was carried on both by individuals and companies and as a cpooperative enterprise, and minor improvements are gradually occurring in spacing, shooting, application of pressure and water conditions. Drilling Central and Southen Pennsylvania.—Pennsylvania production in central and southern Pennsylvania was obtained largely by air and gas repressuring together with the usual amount of natural production, and the repressuring operations in other than the Bradford field have not

Jan 1, 1939

By Arthur C. Simmons

The Pennsylvania-grade oil industry suffered a serious decline in 1938, which can be largely accounted for by the decrease in the use of lubricating oil. Production was considerably lower than in previous years and prices were very much lower. Operating profits undoubtedly were lower than the year 1933, for the average price of Bradford crude in 1938 was $1.898 as compared with $1.86 in 1933, and the difference in average price of $0.04 per barrel was more than offset by increased operating costs and taxes. Bradford Field Production in the Bradford field in the state of Pennsylvania averaged 36,759 bbl. per day in 1938 as compared with 41,300 bbl. in 1937. The decline in average daily production of 4541 bbl. can be attributed to low market price and pipe-line proration rather than to the actual physical capacity of the field. Pipe-line proration was in effect for the last eight months of the year and the daily average production per month fluctuated between a maximum of 41,852 bbl. per day in March 1938 and a minimum of 33,649 bbl. per day in November. Production figures for Bradford field have been corrected to include only the parts of the Bradford field that arc within the state of Pennsylvania, but the well-completion data for the Bradford field cannot be segregated and include those of the entire Bradford field, part of which is in Sew York state. Production from the Bradford field was obtained almost wholly by water-flooding and no radically new methods or practices occurred. Intensive research work was carried on both by individuals and companies and as a cpooperative enterprise, and minor improvements are gradually occurring in spacing, shooting, application of pressure and water conditions. Drilling Central and Southen Pennsylvania.—Pennsylvania production in central and southern Pennsylvania was obtained largely by air and gas repressuring together with the usual amount of natural production, and the repressuring operations in other than the Bradford field have not

Jan 1, 1939

By William P. Blake

In my short " Contribution to the Early History of the Industry of Phosphate of Lime in the United States,"* mention is made of the erection by Dr. Emmons and myself of a magnetic machine for the removal of iron-ore from the so-called "red sand," a granular form of apatite. At the time of writing, it was not possible to refer to my diary and notes, and the general statements were made from recollection. The subject seems to have special interest at this time, by reason of the many forms of machines now being introduced and patented for similar purposes; and, having received letters of in quiry for further details, I have availed myself of the opportunity, when recently at home for a few days, to refer to the original notes and records made by me in 1852, when living at Crown Point and Moriah, on Lake Champlain. The machine mentioned in my former communication mas pur chased of Ransom Cook, of Vermont. It arrived, and was un loaded from the boat and taken part way up to the nine, on October 18,1852. The weight was 1400 pounds and the cost $1200. It was constructed, not with permanent magnets but with electro-mag nets. It was set up and first turned by hand on October 28th, using twelve battery-cups or cells, the connections being made with wires in small cups of quicksilver. The magnets were not sufficiently strong, and the machine did not work well. More batteries were sent for, arid the machine was started with steam-power on Novem ber 6th. The ore was dried in kilns, then put through a coffee-mill crusher or grinder, and then fed upon the leather belt which carried it under the magnets. Many experimental runs were made, and some diffi culties were overcome, before December 21st, when the record states that the machine was working pretty well, using 24 cells and giving a product of from 3 to 5 tons a day of granular phosphate. The ori-

Jan 1, 1893

Jan 1, 1970

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Jan 1, 1942

"IRON for iron" may soon be the primary concept of Mexico's mining industry. If reports that President Adolfo Ruiz Cortines intends to extend federal control over mining are true, Mexico will export iron ore to the U. S. only in return for machinery. Actual exporter will be the Federal Government, with negotiations through the Bank of Mexico. Shipments of iron ore, under this kind of arrangement, can be tightly controlled, assuring that machinery and heavy equipment instead of dollars are the means of payment. Expansion of this policy in the next few years can be expected according to reports.

Jan 6, 1953

Jan 1, 1902

By James Douglas

I had the good fortune to visit the Stockholm Exposition just before its close in October last, and to get a glimpse of the methods used in Sweden in making the wonderful steel and iron for which its furnaces are so famous. My time and opportunities for observation were limited, but some points which I noted may be worth bringing to the notice of the Institute. The Exposition itself was confined to the natural and artificial products of Scanclinavia, and therefore iron and steel held a very prominent place in it. There was a complete collection of the rocks and ores of the Peninsula made by the Geological Survey; and every iron-mine of note exhibited a glass model of its workings, as well as classified specimens, accompaniecl by thorough analyses of the ores. Another feature of interest was the display of models of the old mining-machinery, in the invention and introduction of which Sweden led the way, and of the old and new surveying-instruments and compasses devised for the exploration of the Swedish iron-ore bodies, all of which are more or less magnetic. The magnetometric collection and exhibit of methods of operation made by Prof. Nordestrijm were supremely instructive. The larger metallurgical works, such as those of the Kopparberg and Sandvik companies, exhibited their wares in separate pavilions, in which crude and manufactured objects were arranged most eflectively and tastefully; while the smaller companies erected in the Industrial Arts Building trophies, every one of which was an object of beauty. One was struck on all sides by the fine asthetic feeling exhibited in the ingenious installation of materials and objects not easily lending themselves to artistic treatment. Hammers, picks and drill-steel were grouped into mural designs which it was a delight to look at.

Jan 1, 1899

By E. E. Brownson

This paper will be confined to the treatment of methods as applied in the laboratory of the Boston and Montana Reduction Department of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. at Great Falls, Mont. As the electrolytic plant of this company operates at a current density of approximately 35 to 40 amperes per square foot when running up to capacity, the arsenic and antimony content of the anodes delivered to the plant is of considerable importance as bearing on the purity of the refined cathodes turned out. Owing to the rather high relative percentage of antimony, it has always been the custom to determine antimony as well as arsenic in all forms of copper. Thus, anodes have been analyzed in which the antimony was about equal to the arsenic, although the average shows about 2 parts of arsenic to 1 of antimony. In the refined copper the relative proportions of the two impurities vary considerably, but probably in the average are about equal. In this latter case, the percentage of the two is SO small that ordinarily no attempt is made to separate them, the report of analysis showing percentage of As and Sb combined. Although rapid and exceedingly accurate determinations of arsenic may be made by means of various distillation schemes, the determination of antimony, either by itself or together with arsenic, has always been more or less cumbersome and has required a considerable amount of time. By the methods, details of which follow, the determination of arseluic and antimony, either separated as in the case of anodes or together in case of refined copper, is accomplished in 24 hr. from the time the sample is received by the chemist. As to the accuracy of the results obtained, it can be quite positively stated that in this respect these methods are very satisfactory, much more so than any heretofore employed in our work, and when the rapidity of determination is considered, the results are very accurate.

Jan 1, 1914

By R. G. Powell, R. Schuhmann, E. J. Michal

Liquidus surfaces in the ternary system FeO-Fe2O3-SiO2, were determined from 1250' to 1450°C by the procedure of equilibrating small samples in platinum crucibles, quenching, and microscopic examination. The experimental results were combined with previously published information to construct a ternary diagram for the system showing the entire temperature-composition range of stability of iron silicate slags. Metallurgical applications of the diagram, especially in copper smelting, are discussed briefly. IRON oxides are almost unique among the common oxide constituents of metallurgical slags in that the iron occurs in two different states of oxidation, ferrous and ferric. Moreover, in liquid slags the degree of oxidation of the iron is readily changed by reactions of the slags with oxidizing agents or reducing agents. This behavior of iron oxides in slags accounts, for example, for the effective transfer of large quantities of oxygen through slag layers in open hearth steelmaking. In this process, oxygen supplied by reactions at the gas-slag interface is dissolved in the slag with the oxidation of ferrous iron to ferric. Ferric oxide is transported across the slag layer by convection, and at the slag-metal interface the oxygen reacts with liquid metal while the ferric iron is reduced back to the ferrous state. Another group of processes in which variation in degree of oxidation of iron has great practical importance is in copper smelting. In matte smelting and converting, such large proportions of the iron are oxidized to the ferric state that problems are encountered in preventing or controlling the formation of solid magnetite. The ferrous-ferric relationship also affects the attack of iron oxides on high-SiO2 refractories, which appears to be most severe under reducing conditions for which ferrous iron predominates. Darken and Gurry' determined the chemical properties and phase equilibria of pure iron oxide slags. Their data show that iron oxide melts can have compositions ranging almost all the way from FeO to Fe2O3. The melts of lowest oxygen contents, which exist in equilibrium with metallic iron, approach ferrous oxide in composition but still have a small percentage of ferric oxide. The melts of highest oxygen contents, which have oxygen dissociation pressures of 1 atm, are above magnetite in oxygen content, with over two-thirds of the iron in the ferric state. The previously established phase diagrams for silicate slag systems all show FeO as the iron oxide component. However, Bowen and Schairer? who determined the FeO-SiO2 diagram and many of the other diagrams used by slag chemists, have been careful to point out that their systems always contained both ferrous and ferric iron. Thus, their data are for limiting mixtures with minimum contents of ferric iron, obtained by melting and equilibration in iron crucibles. Under these conditions, the Fe2O3 percentages found by analysis were small enough to justify simplification of the published phase diagrams by calculating the Fe2O3 to equivalent FeO and ignoring Fe2O3 as an additional component. On the basis of experimental measurements of melting points of iron oxides on silica in the presence of various gas mixtures, Darken3 worked out phase diagrams for the Fe-Si-0 system which show the important phase equilibria in terms of temperature and gas composition. This study clarified many aspects of the application of the phase rule to the FeO-Fe2Oa-SiO2 system and was an important basing

Jan 1, 1954

By Irving Fatt, Robert J. S. Brown

INTRODUCTION The wettability of reservoir rocks is recognized as one of the major factors that determines their multiphase flow properties. Multiphase flow properties in turn govern reservoir performance. For this reason, the reservoir engineer is vitally interested in the wettability of reservoir rock. The production research scientist is interested in wettability because the solution of the problem of improving waterflood recovery by use of surface-active additives may hinge on a detailed understanding of the wettability of reservoir rock. Early workers believed that all reservoir rocks were preferentially water wet. Continued study soon uncovered certain rocks which had flow properties that indicated that they were preferentially oil wet. Recent studies show that there is a spectrum of wettability. Some reservoir rocks have multiphase flow properties which indicate that they have an intermediate wettability. The differences in recovery observed among different reservoirs may, in part be the result of small differences in wettability. Differences in wettability amcng reservoir rocks may be the result of differences in the fraction of the total surface area that is preferentially oil wet and preferentially water wet. Nuclear magnetic relaxation measurements may provide a method for determining the fraction of preferentially oil wet and preferentially water wet area in porous media. Measurements to be reported here were made on water-saturated unconsolidated sand packs which were mixtures of preferentially oil wet and preferentially water wet sands. The resulting data show definitely that the fraction of each wettability in these sand packs can be determined by this nondestructive method of measurement. THEORY OF NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RELAXATION The details of the theory of nuclear magnetic relaxation have been presented previously1. In this paper, only a very brief review of the theory will be given to show its application to the measurement of fractional wettability. Nuclear magnetic relaxation is a process of adjustment undergone by certain atomic nuclei when their magnetic environment is changed. They adjust, or relax, to be in equilibrium with a new magnetic field. The reason that some atomic nuclei are affected by a magnetic field is that they themselves behave in some respects like tiny magnets. In particular the proton, the nucleus of the hydrogen atom, behaves as a magnet. The proton spins, somewhat as the earth spins on its axis. The spinning charge produces a magnetic field just as current traveling in a loop of wire produces a magnetic field. No net charge is required, however; for instance, the neutron has spin and magnetic moment. When the spinning proton is subjected to an externally applied magnetic field, its axis tends to line up with the magnetic field, somewhat as a compass needle tends to line up, but the spinning proton cannot do this as easily as the needle can. The proton also has mass, and its spinning mass makes the proton behave somewhat like a gyroscope. As is well known, a force which tends to change the axial direction of a gyroscope merely causes the gyroscope to precess: lhat is, the axis begins to trace out a conical surface. The gyroscope cannot actually assume the position suggested

Jan 1, 1957