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By Maximo Monte-Flores

A PERUSAL of the most recent literature on the subject of hydrocarbons reveals that one point seems, to have been neglected by the various theories; that is, the influence of the bed-rock on the accumulation and distribution of oil and gas. This can be seen from the following statement of the principles of the most accepted theories. ANTICLINAL THEORY The anticlinal theory claims that the accumulation of the hydro-carbons in deposits of commercial importance was brought about by the gravity of the hydrocarbons, the oil and gas being forced to the top of the porous stratum by the difference of the specific gravity of the hydro-carbons and the water. The principal factors toward the accumulation were the general stratigraphic condition of the rocks, their texture and porosity, and their water content. This theory advocated the preexistence of structural deformation as the basis of the motion of gravity, thus implying the principle that the forces that have caused the deformation have had no influence on the movement of the hydrocarbons. STRUCTURAL THEORY According to the structural theory, the accumulation is due, chiefly, to the structure of the subsurface rocks and differs from the anticlinal theory, mainly, in not considering that the motion of the liquids have been caused by the force of gravity.

Jan 1, 1920

By Albert Arents

This test is based upon the fact that metallic copper will precipitate gold and silver upoil its surface from acid solutions. Of course, the fact is not new, but its application is probably so. I have used the method with success; it recommends itself by the rapidity and ease with which it may be carried on. An auriferous cyanide solution, if made acid with sulphuric acid and boiled with finely divided, pulverulent, metallic copper, will, within a short time, deposit its gold-content on the copper. Any silver in the solution is also precipitated. If this mixture is now filtered, the filter and contents may at once be subjected to a crucible assay treatment, and its lead buttons cupelled and determined. If, instead of taking cement-copper, or any metallic copperpowder, a solution of bluestone is used after acidification, and a few small pieces of sheet aluminum are added, and the solution boiled until all the copper has come down, the result as to the precipitation of gold and silver is the same. This modification takes more time and attention in boiling. If aluminum has been used, it should go into the crucible with the filter and

Jan 1, 1904

By Titus Ulke

About two years ago, in making an examination of the Etta mine for the Harney Peak Tin Co., I discovered, in a vertical secondary quartz-vein in the granite massive of Etta mountain, the mineral about to be described. The vein was from a few inches to 3 feet wide, and was exposed for a length of about 15 feet. It was

Jan 1, 1893

By H. R. Joesting

Geophysical search for minerals is stepped up to meet requirements of expanded defense program - Seismic and electrical surveys become firmly established for ground-water and engineering investigations.

Jan 2, 1953

Discussion of the paper of E. W. Parker, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1913, and printed in Bulletin No. 75, March, 1913, pp. 443 to 451. A MEMBER :-I would like to call attention to the fact that the speaker has failed to indicate where is the center of gravity of the membership of the Institute, while he is dealing with this map. MR. PARKER :-I think you will find that a little further east. CHAIRMAN JAMES F. KEMP :-In connection with Mr. Parker's paper, I would like to inject a little matter of history into our program here, as regards the founding of the Institute. The credit for the founding of the Institute really applies to miners who were engaged in the anthracite coal region. The three men who signed the circular for the call for the meeting which brought the engineers to Wilkes-Barre in May, 1871, were Eckley B. Coxe, Richard P. Rothwell, and Martin Coryell.

Jan 5, 1913

By T. Leser, A. W. Jenike

The problems of caving and underground subsidence can be considered as the failure of a highly compacted rock and its subsequent flow in the form of broken rock. The problem is complex because the propagation of failure and flow have to be considered simultaneously; the yield strength of the virgin rock and the broken rock are different; and, while under certain conditions it is sufficient to consider the virgin rock as homogeneous, the density and the yield function of broken rock are both pressure and time dependent. A study of the failure and flow of solids with a pressure dependent yield function has been published recently by Jenike.' In this paper the density of the broken rock is assumed to be only time dependent and the consequences are examined in the case of one-dimensional vertical subsidence into an initial cavity. The following describes an attempt to develop a tool which, in combination with other tools, may lead to mathematical solutions of real problems of caving and subsidence. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM An underground cavity of horizontal cross section 4 = 1 and height 6 is assumed to exist at some depth below the surface. At the time t = 0 rock above the cavity fails and completely fills out the cavity with expanded broken material. With passing time the broken rock consolidates and subsidence proceeds continuously upuard in a vertical shaft. The phenomenon is one-dimensional (see Fig. 1). The problem consists of finding the displacement and the velocity with which the frlmt of the subsidence (wave front) moves upward as a function of the time and of the rock properties. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS CONTROLLING THE PHENOMENON With the assumptions that the broken rock is a continuum and that the subsidence occurs continuously, we can apply the one-dimensional differential equation of contitiuity (conservation of mass) and the equation of preservation of momentum The latter equation is replaced by an assumed relation based on experience, which takes care of the

Jan 1, 1962

By B. B. Cox

Since our last review of Iraq,' considerable progress has been made not only in exploiting Iraq's potential resources but in building pipe lines to carry the oil to the Mediterranean. No new fields were discovered in 1933. The Naft Khaneh field, discovered in early 1927 by the Khaniqin Oil Co. (subsidiary of the Anglo-Persian Oil Co.), continues to supply the local markets through the Rafidain Oil Co. Kirkuk field, discovered by the Turkish Petroleum Co. Oct. 14, 1927, remained shut in pending the completion of the Mediterranean pipe lines, and the Qaiyarah field, discovered by the same company on Oct. 13,1927, was abandoned in 1928. The principal development of interest during the year was the progress made on construction of the Iraq Petroleum Company's 1152-mile pipe line from Kirkuk to the Mediterranean. The line is double 10-in. and 12-in. pipe for 156 miles west of Kirkuk, where the parallel lines bifurcate, one leg going through British mandated territory to the new port of Haifa and the other through French mandated Syria to Tripoli. Each line may be operated independently of the other. There are three double stations on the Kirkuk-Haditha portion, four single stations on the Tripoli leg, and five on the Haifa in addition to a relief station in the Jordan Valley. Except for the Jordan Valley section and two other short stretches on the Haifa leg where pressures are exceptionally high, the line is single. Sea loading lines will be used exclusively at Tripoli and both sea loading lines and dock loading will be employed at Haifa. All pipe was welded and buried before the end of December, 1933. It is anticipated that enough stations will be completed to make 50 per cent capacity operation possible some time during the latter half of the current year. Some months will then be required in which to fill the line, so that if terminal facilities are ready and no unexpected emergencies arise, partial daily deliveries of Iraq crude may be received at the Mediterranean some time during the final quarter of the current year. Capacity operation of 84,000 bbl. per day is not anticipated much before the middle of 1935. Oil and Gas Production No gas is produced commercially and, except for Naft Rhaneh production, no crude is marketed. Although the Turkish Petroleum Co. and

Jan 1, 1934

By Helen L. Cannon

BOTANICAL methods of prospecting for metalliferous ores are based on the premise that deposits at depth may be reflected chemically in surface vegetation. For the past several years, on behalf of the Atomic Energy Commission, the U. S. Geological Survey has investigated on the Colorado Plateau the application of botanical methods to uranium prospecting. Results suggest that orebodies may be found under a considerable cover of barren sandstone through the absorption of uranium and associated trace elements by plants growing at the ground surface. Plant physiologists have demonstrated that uranium is a necessary nutrient for plant growth and therefore is present in all plants.' The amount present is small but measurable. The absorption of uranium by plants growing over ore deposits forms the basis, therefore, for a method of prospecting by plant analysis.

Jan 2, 1954

The first production on the Island of Trinidad was discovered 29 years ago; 13,275 acres were proved for oil and gas to the end of 1937, and 145,076,700 bbl. was produced from 2661 wells, or 10,928 bbl per acre. The production of oil in 1936 was 13,237,030 bbl. and in 1937 a new peak of 15,498,350 bbl. was reached. During November 1937, the daily average production was 43,350 bbl., or 35 bbl. per well, while the maximum gas production was 45 million cubic feet daily. Two hundred fifty wells were completed during 1937 and 15 abandoned. At the end of last year, 800 wells had been temporarily shut down, 1235 were producing oil and gas, and 2 were producing gas only. Six hundred seventy-nine dry wells had been drilled to the end of 1937. At the end of November 1937, the following oil-producing methods were in use: 395 wells flowing, 491 pumping, 97 on air-gas lift and 252 wells miscellaneous. There were no flooding operations. The oil is produced from the Miocene and Eocene and is of both asphalt and paraffin base. The gas produced averaged approximately 1050 B.t.u. per cu. ft. with 0.8 gal. of gasoline per 1000 cubic feet.

Jan 1, 1938

By W. F. Boericke

The character of the Wisconsin orebodies must be clearly understood to appreciate the difficulties encountered in sampling and estimating them. Unlike the western vein deposits, they do not lie between regular walls, but form large, often highly irregular bodies, on a single floor in the so-called Galena limestone. The bottom of the ore is nearly always on the clay bed (a flat generally well-defined clay seam a few inches thick) which marks the junction of the base of the Galena lime and the top of the next formation, the Trenton lime. Above the clay bed, the orebodies make the unique pitch and flat formation described by Chamberlin.' Theoretically, we should find two pitches, one on either side of the top crevice, diverging as they go down, with the final flats a considerable distance apart on the clay bed. The area between, known locally as core ground, should thus constitute a single defined orebody, with the richer portions near the pitches and the leaner portion in the center of the core. Practically, we find few examples of this perfect orebody. Almost invariably one pitch is better defined than the other, and often the opposite pitch is marked only by a faint line of fracture showing stronger mineralization than the wall rock, or it may be totally lacking. But with an orebody of any size or richness, at least one strong pitch usually tends to follow an east-west trend, or a quartering course. Late mining developments in the rich New Diggings field indicate that these pitches often assume a horseshoe or crescent shape, the richer ore being in the heart of the crescent and the pitches showing less mineralization as they extend outwards. In the northern end of the field, on the contrary, the pitches maintain generally a consistent direction, and have been mined for thousands of feet from the shaft. The length of the orebody may be several thousand feet, the height varying from 10 to 60 ft. and the width from 60 to 250 ft. In fact, on the core side, there is no definite end to the ore. The mineralization simply gets thinner and thinner, and the limit of working depends on the cost sheet and the profit from the recovery.

Jan 1, 1923

By W. F. Boericke

The character of the Wisconsin orebodies must be clearly understood to appreciate the difficulties encountered in sampling and estimating them. Unlike the western vein deposits, they do not lie between regular walls, but form large, often highly irregular bodies, on a single floor in the so-called Galena limestone. The bottom of the ore is nearly always on the clay bed (a flat generally well-defined clay seam a few inches thick) which marks the junction of the base of the Galena lime and the top of the next formation, the Trenton lime. Above the clay bed, the orebodies make the unique pitch and flat formation described by Chamberlin.' Theoretically, we should find two pitches, one on either side of the top crevice, diverging as they go down, with the final flats a considerable distance apart on the clay bed. The area between, known locally as core ground, should thus constitute a single defined orebody, with the richer portions near the pitches and the leaner portion in the center of the core. Practically, we find few examples of this perfect orebody. Almost invariably one pitch is better defined than the other, and often the opposite pitch is marked only by a faint line of fracture showing stronger mineralization than the wall rock, or it may be totally lacking. But with an orebody of any size or richness, at least one strong pitch usually tends to follow an east-west trend, or a quartering course. Late mining developments in the rich New Diggings field indicate that these pitches often assume a horseshoe or crescent shape, the richer ore being in the heart of the crescent and the pitches showing less mineralization as they extend outwards. In the northern end of the field, on the contrary, the pitches maintain generally a consistent direction, and have been mined for thousands of feet from the shaft. The length of the orebody may be several thousand feet, the height varying from 10 to 60 ft. and the width from 60 to 250 ft. In fact, on the core side, there is no definite end to the ore. The mineralization simply gets thinner and thinner, and the limit of working depends on the cost sheet and the profit from the recovery.

Jan 1, 1923

By Persifor Frazer

Comparative columns expressing the series of rocks of the lower half of the Mesozoic age in this country and in Europe are not yet definitely established. The following represents a co-ordination of the beds in England and Germany,* with a list of materials to be worked in from this country .†

By Charles H. White

Methods in colorimetry are based on the assumption that the intensity of the' color of a definite volume .of solution is directly proportional to the quantity of the color-producing substance present. In the preparation and examination of colored solutions there are three ways in which the depth of color may be varied. These variables are : (1) the quantity of' the coloring matter; (2) the quantity of the solvent, or the dilution ; and (3) the thickness or depth of that portion of the solution examined. With these three variables as a basis, three general methods in colorimetry have been devised, all of which have been used in the determination of carbon in steel. In the first method, the quantity of the solution is kept the same for both the unknown steel and the standard, and the sections compared are of equal thickness, while the quantity of the standard is varied until the color obtained is of the same intensity as that produced by a definite quantity of the unknown steel. In laboratories where this method is used there is prepared and kept for permanent use a series of solutions with varying amounts of the standard, representing the percentages of carbon from the lowest to the highest demanded in that laboratory. These standard solutions are kept in bottles or test-tubes of equal diameter, and are arranged in series from the faintest to the most intense color, so that it is a simple matter to find the place of the unknown steel in the series, when the solution is of a definite volume and is contained in a tube of the same diameter as the standard tubes. In the second method, equal quantities of the standard and of the unknown steel are dissolved, the standard is diluted to a definite volume, and the solution of the unknown steel is di-

Jan 1, 1907

By H. W. Page

Petroleum requirements since V-J day have been appreciably higher than predicted. Foreign operations now exceed maximum wartime levels by about 14 per cent. Domestic operations since V-J day have averaged 92 Per cent of the wartime peak. In spite of maximum foreign refinery runs, large exports of all products, except residual fuel oil, are necessary to meet foreign demand. During the next few years it is expected that foreign operations will continue at capacity, including new installations, but that, because of increases in foreign demand, exports will continue at about their present level. Domestic operations will increase during this period and crude production probably will exceed maximum efficient rates. Even after 10 years some exports probably will be required, but eventually these will be supplanted by increased output of foreign refineries, except for small tributary exports. The increase in domestic requirements will exceed the decline in exports. Unless findings of crude oil exceed present expectations, the increasing demand will be met by increased imports and synthetic methods-—such as the Hydrocarbon Synthesis Process for conversion of natural gas and coal to gasoline and distillates. Catalytic cracking installations will increase as crude availability decreases. This will help to meet the increasing demand for gasoline but will intensify the domestic shortage of residual fuel oil. Eventually larger imports will be required to satisfy the demand for this product. Introduction Under the pressure of the wartime period, there was time only occasionaly to look ahead in anticipation of what the postwar era held for the petroleum industry. Perhaps the general expectation was that a rather pronounced decline in the level of industry petroleum operations would take place shortly after the end of the war, with the impact felt mainly on the economy of the United States- It is of interest now, nine months after V-J day, to take inventory of the near-term situation and see what significant forces are at work. With this as a starting point, it should be possible to engage in something more satisfactory than pure speculation concerning trends in the immediate future and 10 to 20 years ahead. Present and Near-term Situation During the nine-month period following V-J day, foreign crude oil production and rebery operations have actually increased the These activities were at maximum capacity on V-J day but the continuation of drilling programs, the completion of new and rehabilitated refineries and of transportation facilities during the Past nine months have increased the foreign capacity. This added capacity has been fully utilized. Foreign crude oil production in May 1946 is about 14 per cent higher than during July 1945 and refining operations some 12 per cent higher' During the same period there has been a falling off in similar activities within the

Jan 1, 1947

By H. W. Page

Petroleum requirements since V-J day have been appreciably higher than predicted. Foreign operations now exceed maximum wartime levels by about 14 per cent. Domestic operations since V-J day have averaged 92 Per cent of the wartime peak. In spite of maximum foreign refinery runs, large exports of all products, except residual fuel oil, are necessary to meet foreign demand. During the next few years it is expected that foreign operations will continue at capacity, including new installations, but that, because of increases in foreign demand, exports will continue at about their present level. Domestic operations will increase during this period and crude production probably will exceed maximum efficient rates. Even after 10 years some exports probably will be required, but eventually these will be supplanted by increased output of foreign refineries, except for small tributary exports. The increase in domestic requirements will exceed the decline in exports. Unless findings of crude oil exceed present expectations, the increasing demand will be met by increased imports and synthetic methods-—such as the Hydrocarbon Synthesis Process for conversion of natural gas and coal to gasoline and distillates. Catalytic cracking installations will increase as crude availability decreases. This will help to meet the increasing demand for gasoline but will intensify the domestic shortage of residual fuel oil. Eventually larger imports will be required to satisfy the demand for this product. Introduction Under the pressure of the wartime period, there was time only occasionaly to look ahead in anticipation of what the postwar era held for the petroleum industry. Perhaps the general expectation was that a rather pronounced decline in the level of industry petroleum operations would take place shortly after the end of the war, with the impact felt mainly on the economy of the United States- It is of interest now, nine months after V-J day, to take inventory of the near-term situation and see what significant forces are at work. With this as a starting point, it should be possible to engage in something more satisfactory than pure speculation concerning trends in the immediate future and 10 to 20 years ahead. Present and Near-term Situation During the nine-month period following V-J day, foreign crude oil production and rebery operations have actually increased the These activities were at maximum capacity on V-J day but the continuation of drilling programs, the completion of new and rehabilitated refineries and of transportation facilities during the Past nine months have increased the foreign capacity. This added capacity has been fully utilized. Foreign crude oil production in May 1946 is about 14 per cent higher than during July 1945 and refining operations some 12 per cent higher' During the same period there has been a falling off in similar activities within the

Jan 1, 1947

By O. Chanute

In discussion of Mr. Macdonald's paper, I can say little more thau to add t~ the general acknowledgments of iguorae, and like several of the gentlemen who have preceded me, make one of those confessions which are thought to be good for the soul. Having had some experience in the erection of bridges during past years, I am aware that We yet need much information in order to proportion them to the best advantage. I would more especially like to emphasize three of the points mentioned by Mr. Macdonald, as among those upon which we lack knowledge; these are: first, the behavior of steel; second, the proportions of compression members; and, third, the influence of the size of a bar upon its strength per square inch. First, as to steel. While we all acknowledge this as the material of the future, our position map be said to be still one of expectaucy. Feu? engineers are bold enough to employ it largely in bridges, and those who do, find such serious difficulties in obtaining uniform grades of it, are so puzzled by apparent anomalies and unexpected phenomena, that it requires considerable faith and courage to apply it in large structural masses. A series of systematic experiments,

Jan 1, 1882

By A. K. Isaac

The effectiveness of coalface powered support depends upon its structural nature and the manner of application of the hydraulic system. A critical and largely unresolved feature of the system is the optimum setting pressure level at which a support should operate in its geological environment. This paper provides an argument for a generalised approach to the issue of setting pressure level quoting case study data for a high output British longwall installation.

Jan 1, 1984

Discussion of Papers. Meetings of the Institute offer opportunity for social acquaintance and exchange of ideas, for the presentation of papers, and for discussions thereon ; also incidentally for viewing under especially favorable conditions mining operations and industrial establishments, and for hospitals-ties which demonstrate the brotherhood due to kindred interests. Placing sociability prominent is not to be assumed as relegating other features of meetings to subordinate positions; but during about 40 years of membership in the Institute, the value of acquaintances formed (often ripening into close friendship), and the interchange of data, have frequently demonstrated that the social feature of meetings is of great and lasting value to the membership. Of' a roll embracing 4,011 members, resident in all parts of our country, and scattered in various portions of the world, only a small fraction are able to attend meetings, even if the localities selected are alternately widely separated. Hence, the return which most -members receive for their annual assessment of dues is limited to the publications issued, and the credit of being recognized as a member of a great and worthy organization. Tile greater the value of tile contents of our publication, the fuller the return which goes to members. While the Institute disavows responsibility for views or statements made in papers which appear in its Transactions, the fact that these contributions, after passing proper censorship, are accepted by the Institute and spread before the world may properly be received by the writers as endorsements of their (the writers') ability to present a specific technical or industrial proposition worthy of being carefully read. But the mere presentation and publication of contributed papers falls short of fulfilling one important feature of our meetings. If the purpose is confined to having the writers' views, discoveries, theories, or methods published, this can be obtained through the technical or trade journals and magazines.

Jan 7, 1913

mean to say that these explosions are mechanical, but that the ejectment of the stock, throwing out of tops, etc., are mechanical. I see no reason at present, although I have had almost no experience in the use of large quantities of Mesabi ore, to change my ideas on the subject. That these explosions should follow irregular working or slipping in the furnace, I think can be explained. I have noticed that immediately following slips there is little or no settling of the stock on top, although there is no lessening of the volume of gas passing into the stoves and boilers. Supposing that, after a slip of 3 or 4 feet, the filling continues, but for some distance from the 'top the stock fails to move: there would be a much better chance for the deposited carbon to clog interstices in the stock, and for the additional effect in the same direction of the fine ore in the charge, than if the stock were properly settling. Under such conditions it is easily supposable that the openings would be entirely closed, or closed so tightly that the pressure below the obstruction would be raised to a point approaching the blast-pressure, or to a point high enough to force a passage or an enlargement of the small passages which may remain. When this occurs, gas from below under pressure carries with it large quantities of deposited carbon and fine ore; if the case is aggravated, coke, stone, bell, etc. As soon as the red-hot deposited carbon meets the air there are perfect conditions for a dust explosion, which naturally follows, the same as in a coal-mine or flour-mill.

Jan 1, 1899

By Jerry B. Newby

In the central Ohio area well completions and new production each increased 60 per cent. in 1928 over the previous year. Gas wells increased only 27 per cent. The ratio of dry holes to total completions was unchanged. Ashland County led with 113 completions; a new pool in the shallow Berea sand near Jeromesville stimulated activity. Licking County in the Clinton deep sand territory, however, lead in new production with 972 bbl. Two other deep sand counties followed closely, Coshocton with 831 bbl., and Muskingum with 718 barrels. The Trenton rock or Lima field of northwestern Ohio declined sharply in oil well completions to 130 for 1928 from 210 for the previous year. New production increased from 3000 to 6100 bbl., the increase coming from the Murphy pool in Liberty township, Seneca County. The total of gas wells was unchanged as compared with 1927. The ratio of dry holes to total completions rose from 13 per cent. in 1927 to 27 per cent, in 1928. The largest producer in the Murphy pool made 1200 bbl, in the first 24 hr. The total depth of the wells in this pool averages 1475 ft.; average initial production, 125 barrels.

Jan 1, 1929