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By Reger, B. David

FOR many years, the belief that the so-called "Clinton" sand of Ohio might produce. oil and gas, if it could be reached, has been prevalent in West Virginia. To test this theory, many hundreds of thousands of dollars have been spent and several extremely deep wells, including the deepest boring of the world, have been sunk at various points. With the exception of one well now completed through the sand and the possible exception of another still in progress, all of these wells failed to reach the goal, either through failure of funds or through drilling accidents. REVIEW OF DEEP DRILLING The subject of deep-sand oil and gas in West Virginia has already been discussed by the author1 and by White.2 In these papers, it was shown that the Upper and. Middle Devonian shales, lying between the Berea oil sand (basal Mississippian) and the Oriskany sandstone (Lower Devonian), thicken steadily from eastern Ohio across northern West Virginia and Pennsylvania; but it was stated that the same rate of thickening did not occur in that part of West Virginia south of the Great Kanawha River and in the adjoining portion of Kentucky. In spite of this great eastward thickening, the fact that both the Oriskany and "Clinton" sands, the latter of which is equivalent to the White Medina of New York, exist in great thickness all along the Appalachian Mountains farther east, was held as proof of their probable presence in the deep Appalachian basin.

Jan 3, 1925

By John D. Morgan

Prior to World War I there was no Government stockpiling program. Prior to World War I1 relatively few items were included in Government stockpiling and the start of that war found most objectives for even these few materials far from complete. Profiting from the experience of materials shortages in two wars, Congress in 1946 passed the Strategic and Critical Materials Stock Piling Act, which stated that it is the policy to decrease and prevent wherever possible a dangerous and costly dependence of the U. S. upon foreign nations for supplies of strategic and critical materials in times of national emergency. However, as of mid-1950 few stockpile objectives had been achieved. Shortly after the start of the Korean War it was obvious that in the absence of adequate stockpiles, the defense program could not be successfully carried out without broad authority to expand supplies of strategic and critical metals and minerals and at the same time to channel limited supplies of these materials to essential defense purposes. Accordingly, in September 1950 Congress passed the Defense Production Act, which provided broad powers for allocating materials and for making arrangements, including financial, to expand supplies.

Nov 1, 1955

In the four articles presented on the following pages, a panel of comminution experts offer readers the benefit of their experience with autogenous grinding and forecast some of the future developments to be expected in this fast-growing field. The articles are based on an AIME panel discussion in which the authors participated.

Jan 1, 1970

By C. A. Hartnagel, D. H. Newland

Detailed production statistics listing the operations according to producing sands, districts, etc., are not available for New York State and are scarcely obtainable without extraordinary effort and expense, hardly warranted by the current rate of developments. The oil industry is practically stabilized, so far as exploration for new sources of supply are concerned; no new pools have been tapped in the last 25 or 30 years. There is little prospect of extending the boundary of the oil fields beyond their present limits, though possibly some additional reserves may be found below the present productive sands. Natural gas, on the other hand, is not restricted to such confined areas. Drilling for gas has been fairly active, under the stimulation of some important finds in formations that previously were overlooked. The year's field operations will be covered somewhat fully. Oil production, which has been steadily advancing for a number of years, showed a further moderate gain in 1936. The output for 11 months (figures for December are not yet available) was 4,217,000 bbl., indicating a total for the year of around 4,600,000 bbl. The increase was about 10 per cent, a rate maintained for some time. Prices were more satisfactory than in the preceding five years, with an advance to $2.57 a barrel before the year's close. New York State yield is all paraffin-base, in the same class with high-grade Pennsylvania oil. Most of the output is now obtained by the water drive, which has given a new lease of life to the fields and promises to bring the total to about 200,000,000 bbl. before the known acreage has been exhausted by this method. Before its introduction the annual production was under 1,000,000 bbl. a year. The fields cover an aggrcgate area of 55,000 acres, with some 17,000 wells in operation. Development Exploring for natural gas in New York in 1936 outside of the old established pools continued actively, as in the previous year. There was an increase in total initial production. Operations were conducted in nine counties of the central and western parts of the state, and 43 wells

Jan 1, 1937

By Thomas W. Healy

Particles present in mineral processing systems that are termed ultrafine are those that are small enough to be unaffected by gravity or the flow conditions imposed on the pulp. As such, their interaction with one another and with other larger particles are controlled by specific attractive and repulsive colloidal or surface interactions. Electrostatic repulsion between ultrafines is dominated by surface potential, double layer thickness and specific adsorption potential effects - controlled by pH, salt and complexing ion concentrations. Attraction due to van der Waals interactions must be assessed in terms of bulk and surface coating effects and of particle size and shape. The net effect of attraction and repulsion must finally be related to the average kinetic energy of particles in the real system.

Jan 1, 1979

By Louis Moyd

In the preparation of illustrations to accompany reports of investigations concerning particle shapes of various natural and manufactured materials proposed for use as he aggretates in concrete structures, it was found that stereoscopic views of such materials presented the information much more effectively than the usual two-dimensional photographs. With the whole-hearted cooperation of the Photographic Section, a technique was developed in the petro-graphic laboratory of the Concrete Research Division, U.S. Corps of Engineers, at Clinton, Miss., for simple and rapid preparation of paired stereoscopic photographs and micrographs. The method requires only equipment which is usually part of the general stock of any laboratory, and it is adaptable for all purposes in which three-dimensional views would be found superior to ordinary photographs. Stereoscopic Photographs Where the subject or subjects to be photographed are small but not of microscopic size, an ordinary camera having a ground-glass focusing screen is set up vertically over the field. The material to be photographed is placed on a card, the surface of which is suitable as a background. The card is mounted so that it can be tilted about 5' above and below the horizontal plane, on an axis that coincides with the north-south diameter of the viewing screen. A simple way of achieving this is to mount the card on an object having a convex lower surface. In our laboratory, a watch-glass has been used, with plasticene as the mounting medium. The convex surface should be mounted on a support having a round opening on top and a flat bottom. A roll of tape, a petri dish, a beaker, or any other piece of equipment having the proper shape to give stability to the setup will be satisfactory. The arrangement of the required equipment is shown in Fig 1. For the best results, the subject to be photographed should be mounted in the plane of the axis of rotation. To achieve this effect, the depth of the mass of plasticene between the background and the watch-glass is varied so that when the watch-glass is tilted back and forth on the axis, the subject to be photographed does not appear to move back and forth across the viewing screen. A permanent piece of equipment, embodying an adjustable vertical screw, with lock-nuts, could be made for this purpose. The subject may be illuminated in any manner desired. It was found that the presence of shadows intensifies the effect of depth. In taking the photographs, the concave surface is mounted so that one side of the background card is about 5' below the horizontal, while the axis remains in the horizontal plane. The subject is focused carefully on the ground glass and a picture is taken. The card is then tilted so that the opposite side is about 5' below the horizontal, while the axis still remains in the horizontal plane. The subject is again put in focus and another picture is taken. After both pictures are developed and printed, they are placed side by side in the same orientation and examined with a stereoscopic viewer. If depressions appear where there ought

Jan 1, 1950

By Arch J. Alexander

This paper is a resume of a study undertaken by the West Virginia Department of Mines. The underlying and direct causes of accidents are determined in each occupational group. Then from this study, accident prevention courses, visual and written, are to be taken to the various working groups in the mines.

Jan 9, 1950

By L. D. Jaffe Hollomon, Hollomon John H.

For many steel parts it is desired to obtain the maximum toughness consistent with the strength required by the mechanical design. It is generally recognized that the greatest toughness at any given strength is found in steels having a tempered martensitic structure.' and is virtually independent of the composition of the steel2 (except for carbon). The choice of the composition of a steel for the parts in question should be based, therefore, on hardenability considerations and on manufacturing facility and economy. In a recent paper3 the concept of hardenability was discussed and a somewhat new approach to the problem was suggested. The hardenability was defined in terms of the cooling conditions (speed of cooling) required to avoid the pearlite and the bainite reactions. Since all the alloying elements do not have the same effects on the two reactions, the bainitic and pearl-itic hardenabilities must be considered separately. In order to design a steel for a given part, it is necessary to design a composition that has both sufficient pearlitic and sufficient bainitic hardenability. However, this requirement does not fix the combination of alloying elements to be used; an infinite number of steels would have the required hardenabilities. Other considerations limit the choice. For example, decreasing the carbon content increases the toughness at a given hardness, and for this reason low-carbon steels are often desired. Limitations or requirements of refining, casting, or forming practices often affect the level of some of the alloying elements. Price considerations enter. Frequently, however, it is very desirable to minimize the tendency toward quench-cracking while maintaining the necessary hardenability. This paper is concerned with suggesting a method for choosing compositions that will have the required hardenability together with minimum tendency toward quench-cracking. Quench Cracking Since only the case in which the entire part will transform to martensite in the particular quench employed is being considered, the analysis of the quench-cracking problem is somewhat simplified. Quench-cracking arises from the temperature gradients existing throughout the piece during cooling. Because of these temperature gradients, the contraction arising from the decreasing temperature and the expansion arising from the austenite-martensite reaction do not occur uniformly over the parts, and stresses are set up that tend to cause cracking. The temperature gradients can be reduced by decreasing the severity of quench. This, however, requires that the hardenability be correspondingly increased by increasing the carbon or alloy content. An

Jan 1, 1947

By Hollomon John H., L. D. Jaffe Hollomon

For many steel parts it is desired to obtain the maximum toughness consistent with the strength required by the mechanical design. It is generally recognized that the greatest toughness at any given strength is found in steels having a tempered martensitic structure.' and is virtually independent of the composition of the steel2 (except for carbon). The choice of the composition of a steel for the parts in question should be based, therefore, on hardenability considerations and on manufacturing facility and economy. In a recent paper3 the concept of hardenability was discussed and a somewhat new approach to the problem was suggested. The hardenability was defined in terms of the cooling conditions (speed of cooling) required to avoid the pearlite and the bainite reactions. Since all the alloying elements do not have the same effects on the two reactions, the bainitic and pearl-itic hardenabilities must be considered separately. In order to design a steel for a given part, it is necessary to design a composition that has both sufficient pearlitic and sufficient bainitic hardenability. However, this requirement does not fix the combination of alloying elements to be used; an infinite number of steels would have the required hardenabilities. Other considerations limit the choice. For example, decreasing the carbon content increases the toughness at a given hardness, and for this reason low-carbon steels are often desired. Limitations or requirements of refining, casting, or forming practices often affect the level of some of the alloying elements. Price considerations enter. Frequently, however, it is very desirable to minimize the tendency toward quench-cracking while maintaining the necessary hardenability. This paper is concerned with suggesting a method for choosing compositions that will have the required hardenability together with minimum tendency toward quench-cracking. Quench Cracking Since only the case in which the entire part will transform to martensite in the particular quench employed is being considered, the analysis of the quench-cracking problem is somewhat simplified. Quench-cracking arises from the temperature gradients existing throughout the piece during cooling. Because of these temperature gradients, the contraction arising from the decreasing temperature and the expansion arising from the austenite-martensite reaction do not occur uniformly over the parts, and stresses are set up that tend to cause cracking. The temperature gradients can be reduced by decreasing the severity of quench. This, however, requires that the hardenability be correspondingly increased by increasing the carbon or alloy content. An

Jan 1, 1947

By E. A. Stevens

It has been ascertained in recent years that certain rocktypes, geological formations and structural conditions may be used as fairly reliable guides, when prospecting in recognized mineral belts or milling districts, with a reasonable certainty of discovering "pay-ore;" and that such is considered as a practically established conclusion may be inferred from a perusal of the recent reports of the U. S. Geological Survey and the literature of the several scientific societies discussing mining, geology, and kindred subjects. Cripple Creek is no exception to this conclusion, and the

Jan 1, 1903

By D. A. Belforti, M. P. Lepie

Spectroscopically pure copper was melted on sapphire plaques in a zydrogen atmosphere. The surface tension of the liquid metal was determined using the sessile drop technique. Measurements were made by direct observation with the aid of a specially const,mcted telescope. The value obtained, 1268 dynes per cm, is compared to that found in the literature. THERE is at this time considerable interest in the use of ceramics for vacuum tubes. The crystalline material is superior to the more conventional glass in mechanical strength, chemical inertness, dielectric properties, ability to withstand high temperatures, and so forth. However, ceramics are much more difficult to seal hermetically with metals than are the glasses. For this reason an investigation was undertaken to determine the wetting and adhesion of metals to ceramics. The sessile drop technique offers a convenient means at elevated temperatures for measuring liquid surface tension, wetting angle, density, spread- ing coefficient, and work of adhesion. Thus, from the contour of a drop of liquid at rest on a solid surface one can obtain a quantitative evaluation of the degree to which the two substances will bond. To this end a special apparatus was constructed so that various molten metals could be observed. Standardization of the apparatus was done initially by measuring the surface tension of copper since this is well documented in the metallurgy literature. Although there are many methods available for the measurement of surface energy,'+ the sessile drop technique has been used most extensively for molten metals and ceramics.5"' Fig. 1 illustrates the dimensions to be measured. From these values, the surface tension of the liquid can be obtained using the Bashforth and bdams' equation and tables.

Jan 1, 1963

Jan 1, 1909

By George B. Clark

THE geological data emphasized so successfully in prospecting for new deposits, that is, structural controls, strength of solutions, and type of mineralization, are basically those required for successful exploitation. In the mining of newly discovered deposits the most economical methods should be employed as early as possible to keep the overall cost per unit produced at a minimum and to permit maximum extraction of valuable minerals. A crucial question is: How can geological data be translated into useful quantitative results which will aid in achieving this end? H. E. McKinistry1 has suggested that a solution may be reached in one of two ways: 1-the usual approach, use of judgment based on experience; or 2-mathematical calculations and tests on models, both subject to certain limitations. He also suggests that in addition to better use of geology more case data and theoretical data are needed on which to base sound judgment. Further research, therefore, is necessary. Perhaps in this field the emphasis should be on more specialization in mining methods and ground movement by men with thorough training in physics, engineering, geology, and underground mining. These specialists would be equipped to point out the most economical and scientific methods of exploitation.

Jan 8, 1954

By Joseph J. Yancik

In Moscow, the delegation received a briefing on the Soviet coal industry from First Deputy Minister Vladimir Fedanov. A similar briefing was given to us on the Donets coal basin by Deputy Minister S. Saratikyanz of the Ukrainian Coal Ministry. Lengthy technical discussions were held with the mines staff and research personnel at the institutes we visited. In addition, we had detailed discussions with key staff members of two combinats; Donetskugol and Tulaugol. In all these meetings, principal topics were matters of safety related to hazards associated with face mechanization, coal transport, methane gas control measures, gas outbursts, coal and rock outbursts, fire fighting and control, explosion suppression and control measures, and other related hazard factors. There was also much discussion on miner training, miners' attitudes toward safety and accident prevention practices, and preparation and enforcement of safety rules and regulations. It would be helpful to briefly review Soviet coal production statistics for comparison purposes with the U.S., and for the purpose of referencing some of the delegation findings mentioned in this report. For an excellent, comprehensive picture of Soviet coal production and other related fuel statistics, the reader is referred to Strishkov's, et d. report.1 Strishkov's estimates agree with the numbers given us by Coal Ministry officials except in clean coal tonnage. The figures of 604 million mt of clean coal out of a total production of 655 tons raw coal in 1972 is much higher than Strishkov's estimate of 375 million mt clean coal.

Jan 7, 1974

By R. W. Smith, K. H. Lee Discussion by Fred C. Bond

Fred C. Bond (Tucson, Ariz.) — This is a valuable paper presenting much well directed research testing. It describes a practical method by which the long and relatively accurate Bond closed-circuit grindability can be adapted to a known ore so that results of comparable accuracy can be obtained on the same ore from much shorter batch grinding tests. This can be very useful in control work. In large mills a routine batch grinding test on the head sample can be made each day, or even each shift, to check grinding performance by comparison of the work index from each mill grinding section with that obtained from testing. However, it would be well to re-standardize the batch test against a Bond test, perhaps once a week at

Jan 1, 1969

By John V. Beall

As recently as 1964, the situation in the Australian iron ore industry was chiefly one of potential. The only producer was the Broken Hill Pty. (BHP). That company mined about 5 million tpy from deposits in the Middleback Range in South Australia and at Yampi Sound in Western Australia. No ore was exported from Australia. Now, just five years later, and after expenditures amounting to approximately one half billion dollars, BHP and seven new companies exported about 15 million tons (long tons) of iron ore and pellets as well as meeting Australia's own annual requirements of approximately 8.5 million tons of ore. Early this year, the volume of iron ore on order stood at 328 mil- lion tons to be delivered over a period of 15 years, but Cliffs Western negotiations for sale of Robe River iron ore have boosted the volume to the new high of 466 million tons. All of this has meant a great deal to Australia in terms of new income. In fiscal year 1967 (ending June 30, 1967) exports of iron ore amounted to $52 million; in 1968, $128 million and by 1'972 the Bureau of Mineral Resources expects the value of exports from iron ore to reach $242 million. In achieving the position of major- supplier of iron ore to the Japanese steelmakers, it was necessary to build a great many new facilities, mostly in Western Australia. Three railroads, 70 miles long, 182 miles and 265 miles were constructed. A new port was created at Dampier; Port Hedland was deepened and otherwise improved; both of these ports are in Western Australia. In Tasmania, Savage River developers built an offshore shiploading station that has received the recognition of engineers internationally. At least a half dozen new communities have been founded. The narrow gage railroad from Kalgoorlie to Perth and Freemantle was replaced with a standard gage line.

Jan 6, 1969

Jan 1, 1926

By A. Patton

Introduction THE use of roll scale in the Bessemer process dates back, to the "best of our knowledge, at least 20 years. It was first used by the Ohio Steel Co.; Youngstown, Ohio (now the Ohio Works of the Carnegie Steel Co.) under the direction of Sam, MacDonald, Superintendent of the Bessemer Department at these works. Two 10-ton vessels and one blowing engine capable of blowing one heat at a time were employed. The object of using the scale was to -shorten the length of the blow; or in other words, to increase the production with the same equipment. Various means were tried out for introducing the roll scale into the bath of molten iron: It was shoveled into the vessel before the heat was charged, so that the metal would flow over the scale; it was shoveled into the bath after the vessel was turned up; it Was dumped into the empty iron ladle by the wheelbarrow-load, and at times wars dumped on top of the molten metal in the iron ladle. But the practice of introducing the scale into the iron ladle had to be abandoned on account of danger from explosions and of skulling the -ladles. It was soon learned that the proper place to charge the scale was in the empty vessel, so that when the molten iron was poured into the vessel it flowed over the scale, causing a considerable reaction to take place before the heat was turned up. Eventually, cylindrical chutes similar to those now in use were installed. Into these chutes the scale is dumped and carried into the empty vessel. Before this convenient means of introducing the scale was adopted, the Ohio Works had satisfactorily demonstrated that roll scale would increase production, by blowing 107 heats in one 12-hr. turn (1,087 tons) with one blowing engine, blowing one heat at a time; whereas, prior to the use of scale, the best practice at these works was about 80 heats under the same conditions.

Jan 2, 1917

By Rossiter W. Raymond

It is scarcely necessary to augment or amend the "Appreciation" of Dr. Douglas, from the pen of Dr. Albert A. Ledoux, which appeared in January, 1916, in Bulletin No. 109 of the Institute. The author of that admirable summary enjoyed the great privilege of expressing while Dr. Douglas was yet among us (though already marked for death) the love and esteem with which we all regarded him. But now that his earthly life has ended, the historian must still be the eulogist. No line need be added or deleted in the portrait of him already drawn; it has only to be accepted now as a true likeness, and hung in the gallery of the immortals, illuminated by the crowning glory of another world. James Douglas was born at Quebec, Canada, November 4, 1837. His father, James Douglas, was a distinguished physician and surgeon, known in many lands, especially in the Orient, and famous in his own country for his philanthropy as well as his skill, having established and directed for many years the first retreat for the insane in the Dominion. of Canada. One of the latest literary labors of the son was the editing and publishing of his father's journal and reminiscences—a fascinating volume, the review of which, though a tempting task, I must here forego. Nearly fifty years ago, I had the great pleasure of spending an hour with the elder Douglas, who guided me through his collection of Egyptian and Asiatic treasures. I might almost say souvenirs; so many of them were connected with personal experiences and exalted personages. The veteran's memory had already begun to fail with age, but his vivacity and imagination glowed all the more brightly; and his reminiscences of travel and adventure were embroidered with Oriental magnificence. I felt, after that hour, as if I had visited a stately, half-ruined edifice, overgrown with vines and flowers. The father's genius, adventurous spirit and generous philanthropy descended to his versatile, yet practical son. Like other men of such temperament, James Douglas tried many things before circumstances beyond his own control forced him into the line of his principal lifework. At the age of 18, he was sent to the University of Edinburgh, where he studied for two years. Returning to Canada, he entered Queen's University, at Kingston, Ontario, where he was graduated as Bachelor of Arts in 1858. Subsequently he studied medicine at Lava1 University, Quebec;

Jan 1, 1919

By Arthur L. Flagg

The Elk City mining district of Idaho occupies a position near the geographical center of Idaho county, a region of moderate elevation in the western foot-hills of the Bitter Root mountains. The district comprises an area of approximately 350 Sq. miles, bounded on the west by the Newsome district and on the south by the Dixie and Oro Grande districts. There are no mining districts to the north or east. Elk City, the principal town and the seat of the mining office for the district, is situated in a hydrographical basin surrounded by low hills. The elevation is 4,200 ft. above sea-level. Through this basin flow Elk Creek, Red river, and American river, which unite west of town to form the south fork of the Clearwater. The one township is set out from the Bitter Root Forest Reserve. Though a railroad starting from the Stites terminus of the Clearwater Short Line of the Northern Pacific railroad has been under consideration for some years, the camp is yet without railroad facilities. The projected road would follow the south fork of the Clearwater on easy grades, but would be very expensive to build and maintain. While such a road would greatly benefit those who are now operating in the camp, and in a sligh degree stimulate interest in its possibilities, there is hardly business enough to warrant its construction. At present all supplies and equipment are hauled in by wagon from Stites, a distance of 58 miles, over a wagon road constructed by the State in 1904, following in the main the old Nez Perce trail. While this is not a bad road, it is not all that might be desired. Starting at Stites at an elevation of 1,327 feet above sea-level, the road runs through low hills to Clearwater, a distance of 10 miles. In the next 16 miles the climb is steady until the Mountain House is reached, which is near the summit of Mount Pisgah. This is the highest point passed on the road, having an elevation of 6,500 ft. From the

Jan 1, 1914