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By M. K. Barnett

Engineering research consists, broadly speaking, in the investigation of the effect of the variations in a number of factors on some property of a product or characteristic of a process. The unambiguous description of the product or process requires that the property or characteristic be expressible in quantitative terms. For the purpose of practical control, it is likewise desirable that the independently variable factors governing the product or process be quantities, although this ideal goal is not always attained. Maximum efficiency—i.e., the attain- ment of the maximum amount of reliable, useful information relating to the influence of, the factors on the property of the product or characteristic of the process, for the least expense—is an important requirement for the satisfactory operation of a research organization. Obviously, a necessary condition for the attainment of maximum efficiency is an adequate knowledge of the specialized field in which the experimental research lies. While necessary, this condition is not sufficient. Proper attention must also be given to the general principles of experimental design together with the modern methods for the analysis and evaluation of experimental data. The Present discussion is confined to a single design, the so-called "factorial" design. This design is of special interest in that it attains its goal, maximum efficiency, by directly departing from the

Jan 1, 1948

By M. K. Barnett

Engineering research consists, broadly speaking, in the investigation of the effect of the variations in a number of factors on some property of a product or characteristic of a process. The unambiguous description of the product or process requires that the property or characteristic be expressible in quantitative terms. For the purpose of practical control, it is likewise desirable that the independently variable factors governing the product or process be quantities, although this ideal goal is not always attained. Maximum efficiency—i.e., the attain- ment of the maximum amount of reliable, useful information relating to the influence of, the factors on the property of the product or characteristic of the process, for the least expense—is an important requirement for the satisfactory operation of a research organization. Obviously, a necessary condition for the attainment of maximum efficiency is an adequate knowledge of the specialized field in which the experimental research lies. While necessary, this condition is not sufficient. Proper attention must also be given to the general principles of experimental design together with the modern methods for the analysis and evaluation of experimental data. The Present discussion is confined to a single design, the so-called "factorial" design. This design is of special interest in that it attains its goal, maximum efficiency, by directly departing from the

Jan 1, 1948

DURING the early part of August, 1880, I was directed by Prof: J. P. Lesley, State Geologist, to assume charge of the geology and mapping of the Second Geological Survey of the anthracite coal-fields. I visited the region unineumbered by any instructions other than this, that I should submit a plan for making the sur- * In the practical application of this method I wish to acknowledge the valu¬able aid rendered by my assistant, Mr. A. W. Sheafer.

Jan 1, 1881

By H. R. Banks

Pondering the action of a ball mill employed to carry on comminution from the product of fine crushing to the point where flotation, cyanidation or other concentrating methods are applicable, one wonders where this machine had its origin. When Henry Wadsworth Longfellow reiterated the observation of that older poet Von Logau, and wrote "Tho' the mills of God grind slowly, yet they grind exceeding small," he probably visualized the type of mill that was employed in medieval times for the production of flour, and can therefore not be considered as having gained admittance to the fraternity of millmen, on behalf of either poet. He does, however, make it quite clear that the efficiency of even these Mills of Destiny was low, and to that extent voices a characteristic of fine-grinding equipment that has been the bugbear of all metallurgical engineers. Principle of Ball Mill The principle of the ball mill probably is traceable to the action along the coast line of oceans or lakes, or in the mountain streams. Wave action on rocks and pebbles, close to the shore line, gives the potential energy to the grinding media, which, in their rolling and tossing, break down the sands, and the resultant "pulp" carried out from the shore is classified and settles out in sizes ranging downward to extremely he mesh. Surely, these are the real mills of God. If we allow our minds to dwell on the total tonnage that has been handled in this way, adding to the sands and clays at present in existence those enormous tonnages of metamorphosed sedimentaries we sense the vast quantity of rock that has been so reduced. Is it not likely, therefore, that the answer to the beginnings of pebble milling, and eventually ball milling, came through the perception of this natural mill by one of our engineering forebears? Methods of Grinding The relatively low return of mechanical input to a ball mill, in terms of useful work accomplished, has always intrigued me immensely. The potential energy absorbed by a ball raised to a high point in its path is apparently released with a very small return in useful work. Is the ball mill the most desirable means of he grinding, or is there some other method through which we can recover a reasonable amount of the energy input in terms of useful work? Some years ago, on his retirement, H. W. Hardinge was questioned as to his thoughts on the trend of fine-grinding equipment. As I recall, his prophecy at that time was that the most likely field for improvement in grinding media would be toward a charge of flat disks with some mechanical scheme to cause them to slide over each other. Undoubtedly, Mr. Hardinge went through the usual experience of the muller and bucking board, the customary introduction of the budding millman to his calling. I have often wondered, but have never got beyond the wondering stage, as to the

Jan 1, 1947

By H. R. Banks

Pondering the action of a ball mill employed to carry on comminution from the product of fine crushing to the point where flotation, cyanidation or other concentrating methods are applicable, one wonders where this machine had its origin. When Henry Wadsworth Longfellow reiterated the observation of that older poet Von Logau, and wrote "Tho' the mills of God grind slowly, yet they grind exceeding small," he probably visualized the type of mill that was employed in medieval times for the production of flour, and can therefore not be considered as having gained admittance to the fraternity of millmen, on behalf of either poet. He does, however, make it quite clear that the efficiency of even these Mills of Destiny was low, and to that extent voices a characteristic of fine-grinding equipment that has been the bugbear of all metallurgical engineers. Principle of Ball Mill The principle of the ball mill probably is traceable to the action along the coast line of oceans or lakes, or in the mountain streams. Wave action on rocks and pebbles, close to the shore line, gives the potential energy to the grinding media, which, in their rolling and tossing, break down the sands, and the resultant "pulp" carried out from the shore is classified and settles out in sizes ranging downward to extremely he mesh. Surely, these are the real mills of God. If we allow our minds to dwell on the total tonnage that has been handled in this way, adding to the sands and clays at present in existence those enormous tonnages of metamorphosed sedimentaries we sense the vast quantity of rock that has been so reduced. Is it not likely, therefore, that the answer to the beginnings of pebble milling, and eventually ball milling, came through the perception of this natural mill by one of our engineering forebears? Methods of Grinding The relatively low return of mechanical input to a ball mill, in terms of useful work accomplished, has always intrigued me immensely. The potential energy absorbed by a ball raised to a high point in its path is apparently released with a very small return in useful work. Is the ball mill the most desirable means of he grinding, or is there some other method through which we can recover a reasonable amount of the energy input in terms of useful work? Some years ago, on his retirement, H. W. Hardinge was questioned as to his thoughts on the trend of fine-grinding equipment. As I recall, his prophecy at that time was that the most likely field for improvement in grinding media would be toward a charge of flat disks with some mechanical scheme to cause them to slide over each other. Undoubtedly, Mr. Hardinge went through the usual experience of the muller and bucking board, the customary introduction of the budding millman to his calling. I have often wondered, but have never got beyond the wondering stage, as to the

Jan 1, 1947

By J. P. Norris, W. T. Pettijohn

The Mufulira Copper Mine, Ltd., is in Northern Rhodesia, ten miles from the Belgian Congo border, and is one of the group of four operating mines comprising the Northern Rhodesian Copperbelt. The ore deposits at Mufulira are on the limb of a large syncline striking NW.-SE. and dipping NE. at about 45 deg towards the Congo border. The host rocks are well-consolidated, highly-silicified, felspathic quarzites of the lower part of the pre-Cambrian Séries des Mines of the Katanga. The ore rocks are underlain, unconformably, by the older "Muva Series," in this case hard, green, metamorphosed quarzites. There are three superimposed orebodies, the first, or upper, orebody averaging 40-ft true thickness with a strike length of about 5000 ft, the second, or middle, orebody of about 50-ft true thickness with a strike length of about 6000 ft, and the third or lower orebody of around 60-ft true thickness with a strike length of 8000 ft. The orebodies are separated by varying widths of waste, or very low-grade ore, from a few feet up to 50 ft. The middle and lower orebodies are so close together for a strike length of 3000 ft that they are mined as one orebody. In all, the mineralized zone is about 200 ft in true thickness.

Jan 6, 1950

By P. L. Menaul, P. P. Spafford

This paper discusses the most dangerous form of corrosion encountered in condensate-well oil production, the discovery of the agent causing this corrosion and the remedial chemical treatment proved effective by field use. The injection of ammonium hydroxide, even as little as one quart per day, has proved effective in preventing gas-condensate well corrosion. The injection of "Bone oil" is applied to wells producing brines containing calcium and magnesium salts. Introduction The severe corrosion of equipment in high pressure gas condensate wells has been a problem for several years and numerous papers have been presented on the subject. The term "gas condensate" or "distillate well" is applied to a distinct variety of hydrocarbon producing well, the characteristics of these wells being high bottom-hole (formation) pressures and temperatures and high gas production. These wells usually produce about 40 gal of water per million cubic feet of gas and the gas contains from 0.1 pct to 2 pct carbon dioxide. In the operation of this type of well, the operators soon noted severe internal corrosion of the pipe carrying the production. In some instances the dl tubing has been found to be corroded to perforation in eight months. The high well head pressures of 2500 to 8000 psi makes any weakening of the well equipment by corrosion extremely hazardous. Bursting of the well equipment results in very expensive repair operations and may result in the loss of valuable production, loss of the costly well, or even loss of life. In November 1944, a gas-condensate well in a Gulf Coast field producing from 9500 ft showed a tubing leak. The well was "killed" by filling it with mud through the tubing, and then the tubing was pulled. Corrosion was found to have caused several perforations in the tubing, Fig I. While the mud was being circulated to kill the well, a high pressure jet from the corroded hole in the tubing perforated the casing and damaged the well to the extent that the cost of repairs amounted to $75,000. In November 1944, another gas-con-densate well in a Gulf Coast field producing from 11,400 ft showed tubing failure. This well had been producing an average of 2,500,000 cu ft of gas daily for two years. In the workover of this well, it was found that a hole one inch in diameter had corroded through the tubing and that corrosion had reduced the wall of the tubing to less than half the standard thickness over large areas of the interior of the tubing. It was found that corrosion had also caused two leaks in the casing. After four months spent in an attempted workover failed to make the well safe for further production, the well was plugged and abandoned at a total loss of $300,000,00.

Jan 1, 1948

By P. L. Menaul, P. P. Spafford

This paper discusses the most dangerous form of corrosion encountered in condensate-well oil production, the discovery of the agent causing this corrosion and the remedial chemical treatment proved effective by field use. The injection of ammonium hydroxide, even as little as one quart per day, has proved effective in preventing gas-condensate well corrosion. The injection of "Bone oil" is applied to wells producing brines containing calcium and magnesium salts. Introduction The severe corrosion of equipment in high pressure gas condensate wells has been a problem for several years and numerous papers have been presented on the subject. The term "gas condensate" or "distillate well" is applied to a distinct variety of hydrocarbon producing well, the characteristics of these wells being high bottom-hole (formation) pressures and temperatures and high gas production. These wells usually produce about 40 gal of water per million cubic feet of gas and the gas contains from 0.1 pct to 2 pct carbon dioxide. In the operation of this type of well, the operators soon noted severe internal corrosion of the pipe carrying the production. In some instances the dl tubing has been found to be corroded to perforation in eight months. The high well head pressures of 2500 to 8000 psi makes any weakening of the well equipment by corrosion extremely hazardous. Bursting of the well equipment results in very expensive repair operations and may result in the loss of valuable production, loss of the costly well, or even loss of life. In November 1944, a gas-condensate well in a Gulf Coast field producing from 9500 ft showed a tubing leak. The well was "killed" by filling it with mud through the tubing, and then the tubing was pulled. Corrosion was found to have caused several perforations in the tubing, Fig I. While the mud was being circulated to kill the well, a high pressure jet from the corroded hole in the tubing perforated the casing and damaged the well to the extent that the cost of repairs amounted to $75,000. In November 1944, another gas-con-densate well in a Gulf Coast field producing from 11,400 ft showed tubing failure. This well had been producing an average of 2,500,000 cu ft of gas daily for two years. In the workover of this well, it was found that a hole one inch in diameter had corroded through the tubing and that corrosion had reduced the wall of the tubing to less than half the standard thickness over large areas of the interior of the tubing. It was found that corrosion had also caused two leaks in the casing. After four months spent in an attempted workover failed to make the well safe for further production, the well was plugged and abandoned at a total loss of $300,000,00.

Jan 1, 1948

BROWN iron ore reserves of Franklin county are being proved economical by Heavy-Media separation at the Blackburn mine of the Shook & Fletcher Supply Co. about 120 miles north-west of Birmingham. The ore occurs under a cover of ferruginous chert and gravel and these materials are also disclosed as streaks in the ore body as it is mined. Previous methods of jigging and hand sorting the ore became too expensive because of rising wages but the use of Heavy-Media separation has proved economical and is making Franklin county the most promising source of additional reserves of brown ore.

Jan 12, 1950

By Robert W. Hunt

THE memorable features of American history have been making fast during the last century, and notably so since 1860; and they are by no means confined to political or to any one branch of scientific development. Of all the industrial arts, none show a greater change or a mightier progress than the Bessemer manufacture. And this year, while we are celebrating the first centennial of our national life, we can also celebrate the first decennial of American Bessemer practice. While not forgetting or undervaluing what has been done in other countries, I have thought that a brief history of the introduction and development of the Pneumatic or Bessemer process in America would be of interest. In 1863 the Kelly Pneumatic Process Company was formed and an arrangement entered into with William Kelly, who had taken out letters-patent of the United States, Nos. 16,444 ; 17,628, re¬issued as 505; 18,910, dated January 10th, 1857 ; June 23d, 1857; November 3d, 1857; and December 22d, 1857, respectively. This association was composed of the Cambria Iron Company, E. B. Ward, Park Brothers & Co., Lyon, Shorb & Co., Z. S. Durfee, and, later, Chouteau, Harrison & Valle joined the combination. Not satisfied with possessing the control of the Kelly patent, they sent Mr. Z. S. Durfee to England, to secure for this country Mushet's patent on recarburization, No. 17,389, dated May 26th, 1857, the same having been taken out in England on September 22d, 1856. In this Mr. Durfee was successful. Previous to the application of William Kelly for a patent, Henry Bessemer, of England, had taken out patents dated February 12th, 1856, and August 25th, 1856, in this country. Kelly claimed priority in the discovery of the principles of the process, and the Patent-office allowed his claim by granting him his patents. In the autumn of 1862 Mr. Alexander L. Holley, while in England, was impressed with the importance of Mr. Bessemer's inven¬tion, and so fully foresaw its future, that, upon his return to the United States, he induced Messrs. John A. Griswold and John F. Winslow, of Troy, New York, to join him in endeavoring to possess Bessemer's American patents. Mr. Holley returned to England in

Jan 1, 1877

By John W. Bell

In the introduction to an excellent pamphlet, John Gross' makes the following statements: Although marked progress has been made along mechanical lines, the theory and conception of underlying principles have not advanced so rapidly. This lack of advance in theory may be attributed to the unfortunate situation resulting from the controversy as to whether the Rittinger or Kick law is applicable to crushing. Many pages of the technical literature are burdened with theoretical discussions in favor of one or the other of these laws, which have tended to cloud rather than to clear the atmosphere. Realizing the situation, the Milling Committee of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, through its secretary, E. A. Hersam, studied the milling industry and, because of the apparently hopeless lack of agreement in the Kick versus Rittinger dispute (5, 13, 14, 16, 18. 19. 21, 22, 23, 24, 30, 34). concluded that a foundation lor the theory of crushing was of primary importance. The numbers in the paragraph quoted refer to papers listed by Mr. Gross in his Bibliography on Crushing and Grinding.I One is obliged to infer that these papers show "hopeless lack of agreement in the Kick versus Rittinger dispute." No. 22 is a paper by Arthur 0. Gates2 and No. 23 is one by the writer.3 Employing the subject matter contained in papers Nos. 22 and 232,3 the writer will show that their authors formulated identical conclusions, based solely on experimental evidence. Exactly the same defect in the Stadler hypothesis was described in each of the two papers, although entirely different experimental methods were employed in uncovering it. Both of the authors, independently, formulated the conclusion that Rittinger's was a true hypothesis and Stadler's false. The evidence in a third paper4 will be employed to prove that Stadler's hypothesis, when examined experimentally, is worthless. Stadler's Hypothesis Worthless It is the writer's opinion that the evidence available in 1915 and the corroborating evidence in 1916 was amply sufficient to eliminate the need for any further consideration of Stadler's hypothesis. Certainly the evidence produced in 1918 dealt this hypothesis its coup de grace. It follows, therefore, that in the year 1918 there was only one credible hypothesis left—the Rittinger hypothesis. Gates' Opinion What information is available in Mr. Gates' paper?2 His conclusions are not consecutively summarized, none the less they are perfectly clear. On page 876, Gates says, and it is a very significant utterance: But my results show, among other things. that many more of Stadler's energy units are obtained per foot-pound-applied in coarse than in finc crushing. This suggests a doubt as to the correctness of his unit, since one would expect a foot-pound-applied to produce the same number of "energy units," whether the feed and resulting product were coarse or fine. When Rittinger's theory is applied, the number of mesh-tons (my unit of surface produced) is

Jan 1, 1943

By John W. Bell

In the introduction to an excellent pamphlet, John Gross' makes the following statements: Although marked progress has been made along mechanical lines, the theory and conception of underlying principles have not advanced so rapidly. This lack of advance in theory may be attributed to the unfortunate situation resulting from the controversy as to whether the Rittinger or Kick law is applicable to crushing. Many pages of the technical literature are burdened with theoretical discussions in favor of one or the other of these laws, which have tended to cloud rather than to clear the atmosphere. Realizing the situation, the Milling Committee of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, through its secretary, E. A. Hersam, studied the milling industry and, because of the apparently hopeless lack of agreement in the Kick versus Rittinger dispute (5, 13, 14, 16, 18. 19. 21, 22, 23, 24, 30, 34). concluded that a foundation lor the theory of crushing was of primary importance. The numbers in the paragraph quoted refer to papers listed by Mr. Gross in his Bibliography on Crushing and Grinding.I One is obliged to infer that these papers show "hopeless lack of agreement in the Kick versus Rittinger dispute." No. 22 is a paper by Arthur 0. Gates2 and No. 23 is one by the writer.3 Employing the subject matter contained in papers Nos. 22 and 232,3 the writer will show that their authors formulated identical conclusions, based solely on experimental evidence. Exactly the same defect in the Stadler hypothesis was described in each of the two papers, although entirely different experimental methods were employed in uncovering it. Both of the authors, independently, formulated the conclusion that Rittinger's was a true hypothesis and Stadler's false. The evidence in a third paper4 will be employed to prove that Stadler's hypothesis, when examined experimentally, is worthless. Stadler's Hypothesis Worthless It is the writer's opinion that the evidence available in 1915 and the corroborating evidence in 1916 was amply sufficient to eliminate the need for any further consideration of Stadler's hypothesis. Certainly the evidence produced in 1918 dealt this hypothesis its coup de grace. It follows, therefore, that in the year 1918 there was only one credible hypothesis left—the Rittinger hypothesis. Gates' Opinion What information is available in Mr. Gates' paper?2 His conclusions are not consecutively summarized, none the less they are perfectly clear. On page 876, Gates says, and it is a very significant utterance: But my results show, among other things. that many more of Stadler's energy units are obtained per foot-pound-applied in coarse than in finc crushing. This suggests a doubt as to the correctness of his unit, since one would expect a foot-pound-applied to produce the same number of "energy units," whether the feed and resulting product were coarse or fine. When Rittinger's theory is applied, the number of mesh-tons (my unit of surface produced) is

Jan 1, 1943

By J. B. Hiskey

The hydrometallurgical application of thiourea in processing precious metal ores and concentrates has reached the development stage. This paper reviews recent technical literature covering the process development of thiourea leaching. In addition, recent fundamental contributions are discussed. Most of the interest in thiourea leaching has involved treating high grade concentrates that have sufficient value to just the use of thiourea as a reagent. An important development in thiourea technology is the addition of SO2 to the leaching solution. This procedure effectively reduces the decomposition of thiourea and eliminates the problems of passive surface layers that limit the leaching efficiency. Results for the thiourea leaching of a bulk sulfide concentrate and a residue from the autoclave leaching of a smelter flue dust are also reported. As determined by a standard bottle roll cyanidation test, the bulk concentrate was extremely resistive to cyanide leaching yielding only 16% gold and 2% silver extraction in 24 hours. Leaching with a relatively concentrated thiourea solution (1MCS (NH2)2) resulted in 83% gold and 75% silver extraction in four hours. With the treated flue dust residue, gold extraction was about 60%. Gold and silver extraction with cyanide was sensitive to both cyanide concentration and oxidizing conditions. Cyanidation resulted in 59% gold extraction and 77% silver extraction in 24 hours.

Jan 1, 1985

By Earl Chairman Oliver

The major development in stabilization of the oil industry during 1933 was the transition in the United States from state control to federal control in many of the functions that government is presumed to exercise. A brief review of the influences leading to that transition is given here to suggest its significance and to assist in forecasting its further development. Bitumens were known to the ancients and have been applied to minor uses since earliest historic times, but it was not until after the discovery of oil in considerable quantities near Titusville, Pennsylvania, in 1859 that it was made the basis of extensive commercial undertakings. In 1859 little was known about the origin of oil and gas, the nature of these deposits, and the physical laws that controlled their accumulation. Scientists soon began to study them, but 50 years or more of active oil-field development had elapsed before sufficient geological information had been accumulated to point the way toward efficient recovery of these products. In fact, only within the past five years has the function of reservoir energy become widely understood, yet it is a primary factor in oil recovery. discovery near Titusville, this infant industry has developed into an industrial giant. In complete ignorance of their destructive effect, wasteful development methods were initiated in Oil Creek and these became industrial habits. These habits in turn became oil and gas law. Under that law vast sums of money have been expended, rights have become vested and development methods fastened on a great industry that not only bring upon it periodic demoralization but cause ruthless destruction of the nation's reserves of these important natural resources. This is occurring in the midst of a petroleum era when oil is essential to the nation's security, its industrial supremacy, and the personal convenience of every citizen. Its conservation, therefore, has become a question of grave national concern. Conflict between PHysical Facts and Oil Law This destruction of an important natural resource and periodic demoralization of a vast industry can be halted only by readjusting oil

Jan 1, 1934

By A. J. Williams

THE province of Saskatchewan, situated in the center of the Great Plains region of Canada, has, like most prairie areas, an essentially agricultural economy. Most of its population of about 860,000 is located in the southern half of the province in the farming and ranching areas. To the north of the prairie is a broad forested belt supporting a considerable timbering industry, and the northern one third of the province is glaciated pre-Cambrian rock formation. This latter area is relatively barren of vegetation, but the presence within it of a considerable variety of radioactive, noble and base metals, and industrial minerals has been shown by prospecting in recent years.' Glacial Geology The Keewatin ice sheet, considered to have accumulated in the country to the west of Hudson Bay in Pleistocene time, covered at its maximum advancement almost all of Saskatchewan and extended south of the international boundary. Only in the Cypress Hills in the southwest and around Wood Mountain in the south central portion of the province did the preglacial formations escape the action for this glacial period. The bedrock of the plains and forest areas therefore is overlain by moraines and modified glacial drift, which vary in thickness from a few feet to 400 or 500 ft.' Glacial action in the pre-Cambrian area of the province was largely erosional, most of the more recent formations and some of the pre-Cambrian rock being transported out of the area to the south and west. It has been estimated that about 13 pct of this area is composed of lakes and rivers not too adaptable to rail or water transportation, so that until the use of aviation for exploration purposes became general, development of the area was slow. To the south, the heavy mantle of glacial drift has to some extent deterred the discovery of industrial minerals in the bedrock underlying the forest and prairie regions3 At the same time, this drift contains numerous deposits of those most elementary and necessary industrial minerals, sand and gravel. Sedimentary Basin The major feature of the sedimentary deposits underlying the plains regions is the basinal structure known as the Moose Jaw syncline, which runs from the southeast corner of the province in a northwesterly direction. To the west of this syncline the formations curve upward, then have been faulted and further upthrust to appear at the surface in the foothills of the Rockies in Alberta; to the east and north they curve upward into Manitoba and northern Saskatchewan, but the surface contacts are covered mostly with glacial drift.238 The axis of the syncline dips to the southeast, so that there is also an upward trend of the formations along the axis to the northwest. In illustration of the regional structure underlying the province, the pre-Cambrian basement has been logged in drillholes at the following depths in several locations: Ogema (south central), 9390 ft; Gronlid (northeast), 2599 ft; Vera (northwest), 4422 ft; Big River (north northwest), 2348 ft. Fig. 1 indicates the general surface geology of the province, ignoring such glacial overburden as may overlie many of the bedrock formations. Also indicated is the approximate location of the axis of the Moose Jaw syncline.' Industrial Minerals Clays: The province is fortunate in possessing a widespread distribution of clays of ceramic value, ranging from those used for heavy structural products to the high grade pottery and china clays. Shales suitable for brick and tile production are found in the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary formations across the south of the province where the glacial drift is thin or nonexistent. Many deposits of glacial lake clays suitable for such wares are found scattered over the rest of the province south of the pre-Cambrian area. The Whitemud formation of the Upper Cretaceous is a narrow sedimentary band of secondary clays found intermittently at points across the south of the province where glacial action did not disturb or remove them.' In the southwest corner of the province, around Eastend in the Frenchman River valley, the refractory clays of this formation are contaminated somewhat with iron compounds or other alteration products of basaltic rocks. This eliminates the use of those clays in true whitewares, as they fire to creamy buff shades at the lower temperatures and to a blue-specked grey at cone 8 to 12, (2280°F to 2390°F), the range commonly used in firing whiteware. However, for use in the production of colored artware, caneware, stoneware or crockery, and sewerpipe, this type of clay makes an excellent body that requires little or no addition of flint, feldspar, or other fluxing materials such as are required in the higher class of ware.' It is not a grade of clay that can be shipped great distances to the manufacturing centers, but a market for considerable tonnages has developed at nearby Medicine Hat, where cheap natural gas is available for the firing of the ware. Farther east in the south central portion of the province, the clays of the Whitemud formation are generally more refractory and white burning. The formation is divided into three zones, consisting of white clays, brown shale, and white sandy clays.

Jan 1, 1953

By Claudio Gutiérrez

The action of quebracho in the selective flotation of fluorite and calcite has been studied. It has been found that the unavoidable ions produced by dissolution of these minerals can precipitate calcium oleate which profoundly influences the adsorption of oleate. The depressing action of quebracho is due, at least partly, to a decrease of the oleate adsorption. The depression of flourite flotation by quebracho in the presence of calcium is due to the fact that precipitated calcium oleate can become only physisorbed, its adsorption being strongly prevented by quebracho. It is concluded that adsorption experiments with flourite must be conducted with a flotation-size mineral, which has a lower dissolution rate than when finely ground.

Jan 1, 1980

THE first mention of the mining and use of coal in the Pittsburgh district refers to the mine under Duquesne Heights that furnished coal for the garrison at the fort at Pittsburgh in 1760. Coal had been dug and used as fuel just outside of Brownsville, Fayette county, in 1759, but this was not a regular mine as the opening was in an outcropping. Maps of Ohio in 1770 showed "Cole Mines" at various points. The Penns purchased all the coal south of Kittanning in southwestern Pennsylvania from the Chiefs of the Six Nations for a reported price of $10,000. During the Revolution, coal from Herron Hill, Minersville, and Coal Hill, all within the present city limits, was used in Pittsburgh. There is today one custom pit opened in Coal Hill (Duquesne Heights). The first steam engine was set up in Pittsburgh in 1794 and used coal as fuel. The first mine in the Youghiogheny gas district was opened in 1796. In 1803, the first shipment of coal by water was made from Pittsburgh down the Ohio river and landed at Philadelphia, where it sold for approximately $9.50 per ton. The mines along the Monongahela were naturally the first to be opened. With the completion of locks and dams in 1844, permitting slack-water navigation, the industry began to thrive. The No. 8 field of Ohio and the Fairmont region of northern West Virginia were opened in the period 1840 to 1855. From that time on there has been a continuous development of the coal resources of this district, until at present-productive capacity is enough to supply 30 per cent. of the country's needs of bituminous coal. The original method of working the Pittsburgh seam was to drive under cover at some .easily accessible point on the outcrop with a single entry, usually 1 1/2 yd. wide. Rooms or gangways were turned to the

Jan 10, 1926

By I. Havenaar

Various methods have been proposed in the literature to calculate the pressure losses in drill-pipe and bit-nozzles, i.e., those parts of the mud-circuit where the largest pressure-losses occur. Very few data, however, are available to check the validity of these proposals. Presented in this paper are the results of pumping experiments with clay-water drilling fluids of different specific gravities and different laminar flow-properties (differential viscosity and Bingham yield value), using pipes of different diameters. In addition, a series of measurements on bit-nozzles is discussed. Two main conclusions may be drawn from this work for the flow through pipes. 1. In the laminar flow region pressure losses can be calculated from the differential viscosity and Bingham yield value of the mud. 2. In the turbulent flow region pressure losses can be calculated with good approximation from a viscosity term which is determined by the volume fraction of the dispersed phase. Calculations making use of laminar flow properties may lead to erroneous results. The effect of temperature on the pressure losses in the case of turbulent flow can be calculated from the change in viscosity of the dispersing medium, i.e., water. The main conclusions determined for the flow through bit-nozzles are that for flow conditions prevailing in the field, the pressure-drops in bit-nozzles are independent of the laminar flow properties of the mud. They are solely determined by the density of the mud and the geometry of the nozzle. INTRODUCTION The last decades have witnessed a steady increase in the depth of oil wells. This is illustrated by the increase in the drilling depth record in the USA from 8,046 ft in 1927 to 21,482 ft in 1953. This increasing depth, together with the experience that high rates of mud circulation and high fluid velocities in the bit-nozzles enhance the rate of drilling, has emphasized the importance of selecting suitable mud-pumps when starting the drilling of a deep borehole. For such a selection it is necessary to be able to calculate the pumping pressures necessary to obtain the required circulation rates. The main part of the pressure-losses in the mud circuit occur in the drill pipe and the bit-nozzles. Various methods have been proposed in the literature to calculate the pressure-losses in the drill pipe1,2,3,4. These methods do not all lead to the same results, and at the time this investigation was started insufficient basic data were available to check their validity. Moreover, to our knowledge, no data are available at all on the effect, if any, of the flow-properties of the mud on the pressure-losses in bit-nozzles.

Jan 1, 1955

By Mark L. Requa

During the past two years California has developed a new and important oil-field: I refer to Midway. This field produced the famous Lake View gusher, which is credited with a total production in excess of 8,000,000 barrels. Fortunately for the oil industry of the State, this well is now a thing of the past, and nothing, save a great crater-like opening marks its location. The pipe is entirely worn away and gone; and it is a matter of serious doubt if there can be anything done that will cause the well to produce again. Fortunately, also, there have been no other wells in that field or elsewhere throughout the State that in any may compared with the Lake View. Midway is noted for large wells, of from 500 to 2,000 barrels production; but the decline is rapid, and a few months serve to bring the output down to a few hundred barrels. In the oil-territory heretofore blocked out as proved and probable, there have been, during the year, many changes. Some areas which were expected to be fairly productive have apparently failed; others, more strictly "wild-cat," have come in; while in some of the older fields there are properties which are beginning to shorn evident signs of exhaustion. The total area of proved territory will therefore probably suffer but small

Jan 1, 1912

By Alex G. Sciulli

This paper discusses the primary computer programs used by the Mine Safety and Health Administration's Bruceton Safety Technology Center to evaluate coal refuse disposal plans. These programs are currently being used by private consultants, government, and the coal industry for today's coal refuse disposal problems. This paper outlines five programs, their special features, and their importance in the design and construction of coal refuse disposal facilities. The purpose of the paper is to present the general steps necessary in the computer-modeling of each program. The programs that are discussed include BISHOP, STABL, RWE, DAMS2, and HEC-2, which cover the subject areas of slope stability, hydrographs, flood routing, and water surface profiles.

Jan 1, 1983