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"The theoretical basis of ideal smelting reduction using coal as reductant in a process employing closed loop forced-circulation of hot metal is outlined. In the proposed process, an extensive area of relatively slag-free hot metal is available as a heat sink for absorbing the large amount of heat produced by complete combustion of CO within the furnace. Any slag that is formed within the oxidizing arm of the furnace loop is quickly swept away as a thin floating layer by the bulk movement of hot metal which is induced positively by forced melt circulation and sustained by causing the hot metal and the thin slag layer to overflow into a lower level hearth in which coal is carbonised and dissolved directly into the circulating melt.The proposed process is shown to offer very substantial cost savings over all other direct smelting technology. This is mainly because of its inherently low capital cost and its high energy efficiency. Furthermore, the favourable economics are not reliant on fuel gas credits as all the process gas is combusted within the reactor itself.IntroductionMetallurgical processes in the year 2000 will be compromise solutions to the metallurgical problems that already exist today. It is common knowledge that the mineralogical complexity of certain polymetallic sulphides, for example, precludes high degrees of separation and recovery by conventional mineral beneficiation. steps are therefore being taken towards the development of a truly polymetallic smelting process which will produce simultaneously zinc lead and copper as, metals from complex ores without prior beneficiation(l). In the ferrous extraction industry, the shortcomings of the highly efficient modern blast' furnace are well known and world-wide there is considerable effort being directed towards coal-based ironmaking without the requirement of metallurgical coke as a process intermediate. The current status 0f2Joal-based ironmaking has recently been reviewed by Smith and Corbett. (2)"

Jan 1, 1988

By A. Patti, S. Reutzel, D. M. Herlach, L. Ratke, I. Egry

Cu-Co shows a metastable miscibility gap in the region of the undercooled melt. Undercooling of the melt below the binodal leads to separation of the melt into a Co-rich LI-phase and a Curich L2-phase. Experimentally, undercooling into the metastable miscibility gap is realised by means of electromagnetic levitation (EML), processing in drop tube (DT) and by melt flux embedding. As undercooling is large in these experiments, the velocity of the solidification front is high and the microstructure is frozen in instantaneously. Samples have been undercooled and solidified in the TEMPUS-facility (container less electromagnetic processing under weightlessness) during parabolic flight under reduced gravity conditions. Microstructures of solidified samples have been analysed and compared to those processed under gravitational conditions. The influence of convection on phase growth is much lower in reduced gravity. The microstructure shows spherical droplets of the minority phase, statistically dispersed in the majority phase.

Jan 1, 2004

By J. G. Eacott

This paper reviews the role of oxygen potential and the advances that have been made in the application of tonnage oxygen in copper smelting. Brief reference is made to reaction kinetics before attention is turned to the thermodynamic considerations in copper melting to illustrate the importance of oxygen and. oxygen potential in the component parts of the overall smelting process. The chemical potential diagram for the Cu-Fe-S-O-Si02 system is used to elucidate the difference b etween the conventional matte smelting process and the modern continuous processes. A progressive oxidation scale' is constructed to show the common elements which exist, and the matte grades produced, during the smelting of concentrates to blister copper in commercially available copper smelting processes and those under development. The common route in producing blister copper from molten mattes, regardless of process, is illustrated on the Cu-Fe-S equilibrium phase diagram. The essential features of oxygen enrichment, in terms of its effect on combustion conditions (i.e. oxidation of fuel and sulphide minerals) and the heat balance are outlined. The benefits of oxygen enrichment are listed. The influence of tonnage oxygen and its effect on productivity, fuel savings, gas volume and strength in various copper melting processes are examined as a state-of-the-art review. Reference is made to the economics of tonnage oxygen utilization.

Jan 1, 1983

By Emmanuel N. Zevgolis

After the Krupp-Renn process was shown to be unsuitable for treatment of the Greek nickeliferous laterites, the LM process was developed. It involved roasting reduction up to metallic iron in a Rotary Kiln (R/K) and smelting in an Electric Furnace (E/F). Ferronickel (with 15% Ni) produced in the E/F, was upgraded to 90-95% Ni in an 02 converter. Raw Ni was then electrolyzed to pure Ni. The LM process was not applied for very long however, due to various problems. So, the Larco process was developed, i.e., pre-reduction in R/Ks, smelting of the calcine in E/Fs for ferronickel production (15% Ni) and enrichment to 20% Ni, in an O2 converter. Until now, many technological improvements have been invented and applied or adjusted to the process, which have made it a fully reliable and competitive one. sohe of the improvements were the invention and application of a new granulation process for liquid ferronickel, the modification of the existing R/Ks, E/Fs and converters and the design of new ones, and others that are described in the paper. Keywords: Ferronickel, metallurgy, laterites, LM process, Larco process

Jan 1, 2004

By A. Iván, Patiño C. Francisco, Flores B. Javier, Peréz L. Miguel, Hernandez A. Juan, Trapála P. Norma, Salinas R. Eleazar, Rivera L. Isauro, G. Flores, U. Mizraim

"Tills work is related with the production of tiles using wastes from mining and metallurgical industry of Hidalgo State, as raw material. These wastes present a majority particle size (60 %), minor than 53 m (mesh 270, in Tyler Series) with the following composition; 70.01 % wt. of Si02, 12.82 % wt. of Ah03, 3.80 % wt. of Fe, 0.70 % wt. of Mn, 3.98 % wt. ofK20, 3.34 % wt. of CaO, 2.50 % wt. ofNa20, 0.04 % wt. of Zn, 0.026 % wt. of Pb, 56 grams per ton of Ag and 0.6 grams per ton of Au. In this work, the partial results and experimental conditions for the preparation of some composites to produce tiles are shown. The composite that offers the best results in productions of tiles was that with 66.67 % wt. of mining waste, 26.67 % wt. of red mud and 6.67 % wt. of black mud.IntroductionTo now, mining activities carried out during more than 457 years in Hidalgo State, Mexico; has lead a great volume of wastes; which can be classified into different types, having among the more common; Acid mining water, solid transport water, elements in radical form, abandoned minerals without processing and processing minerals wastes known as burrows, being these the most abundant in the region counting with an approximated volume of 110 million of tons, presenting a fine particle size that can affect population health during windy epochs [1 -4].Form metallurgical point of view, is well known that a fundamental characterization study it is necessary to know the viability of reusing or recycling of these wastes. According this, these residues can also be considered as raw materials in other economical activities, due its Si, Fe, AI, Ca, Na and P oxides contents, its mineralogy and the distribution of chemical elements in the primary and secondary phases [1,2,5,6]."

Jan 1, 2012

By Mitsutaka Hino

The contents of gangue minerals, such as Al2O3. P2O5, crystalline water and so forth in the iron ore imported to Japan tend to increase year by year. Though the increments of such gangue contents arc approximately 0.1-0.2 mass%, some problems for the blast furnace operation in ironmaking process have already been reported, In order to clarify the mechanism of harmful effect caused by the small increment of gangue minerals, mainly Al2O3. on the blast furnace operation, the dripping behavior of Fe,O-CaO-SiO2-Al2O3-MgO slag from the iron funnel, which simulated the micro-porosity in sinter ore, has been observed with the wide range of basicity, Al2O3, Fe2O and MgO contents. The effect of MgO on the dripping behavior of slag has been summarized in this paper. It was found that the addition of 2mass% MgO resulted in large increase of hold-up on the most of the conditions. When Fe2O content was less than 20mass% and the basicity was lower than 0.8, MgO lowered the hold-up even if the slag contained 10mass% Ah03. Every slag hold-up showed the minimum at the basicity of less than unity on the conditions of constant Fe2O and Al2O3 contents, This trend became remarkable when the slag contained 2 mass% MgO.

Jan 1, 2003

By H. Yin, T. Emi

"Advantages of gas/flux injection technology as materialized in the main stay unit processes for steelmaking are depicted covering hot metal pretreatment through secondary refining. Current status of micro-kinetic issues involved in the injection technology are reviewed including gas-in- metal, gas-in-slag, flux-in-metal, metal-in-flux and three-phase dispersion systems with reference to macro-kinetics. Key problems are briefly addressed to further develop injection technology for steelmaking processes.1. FROM PAST TO PRESENTApplication of gas injection to steel industry started in early 1950's when inert gas bubbling via stopper rod, lance, or porous refractory plug was practiced to make the temperature of steel melt in ladle uniform The gas bubbling in ladle was then extended to slightly removing hydrogen ti'om the steel melt tapped from Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) and Basic Open Hearth Furnace (BOH) when vacuum processing facilities were not popular. Later, oxygen gas injection via calorized steel pipe into molten steel bath in BOH Furnace was also put into operation to promote the decarburization to increase the productivity of the process. This line of development has been made in parallel with more profound processes, i.e, top blowing Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) for primary steelmaking and side blowing Argon Oxygen Oecarburization (AOD) vessel for decarburizing stainless steels.On the other hand, injection of fluxes into steel bath was first industrialized in Germany in 1960's, Primary objective was to desulfurize steel melt in ladle by injecting CaC2 or CaCrCaO mixture via lance under neutral slag cover with good success. Difficulties in injecting fluxes without clogging and rippling at a desired flux/gas ratio, and durability of injection lance were resolved in due time to bring forth many injection facilities to flourish for versatile refining operation. Top injection of fluxes from main oxygen lance to BOF was also industrialized as LDAC to promote early slag formation. A new process then emerged which injects oxygen gas and fluxes together through concentric annular tuyere, installed at the bottom of the BOE into steel melt. This process, developed in Germany [Oxygen Bottom Maxhutte (OBM)] and brought into maturity in USA (Q-BOP) and Japan in a large scale operation, became the predecessor of the combined blowing (top and bottom blown) BOF which dominates modern steelmaking."

Jan 1, 1996

By P. M. Prasad

The last two decades have witnessed the emergence of numerous hydrometallurgical and direct processing techniques for the extraction of some metals from pocketed/lean/complex sulfide ore deposits. A new approach with some inherent technological merits, investigated in recent years, is the lime-enhanced reduction of metal sulfides. Thermodynamic aspects relevant to the lime-enhanced reduction of metal sulfides by H2,C0 and C are discussed. A survey of the researches on the basic features of and factors influencing the lime-scavenged reduction of selected sulfides and sulfide concentrates reveals that lime tremendously enhances the sulfide reduction rates (up to 100 times) and drastically reduces the sulfur emission into off-gas to negligible levels. Further successful practice of lime-enhanced reduction requires only a moderate temperature of reduction (characteristic of each sul¬fide) and, in the case of gaseous reduction, relatively low gas flow rates. Relevant kinetic aspects of the concerned reactions that have a bearing on process development and its understanding are also briefly discussed. A conceptual scheme of general applicability for the processing of sulfide concentrates by the lime-enhanced reduction technique consists of three main steps: (0 lime-enhanced reduction by a suitable reagent (e,g., H,2, CO, gasified coal, water gas), (ii) separation of the product metal from the dry slag (CaS + unused CO) by mechanical separation, magnetic/gravity concentration or flotation and (iii) melting and refining by standard procedures. This novel approach, which is patently less complex, is expected to employ basically simpler flow sheets at comparatively lower operational temperatures and aid in pollution abatement. Potential for developing such a route for the small scale extraction of metals like copper, molybdenum and antimony is indicated. Possibility of utilizing this technique for the production of fibers/ filaments of some metals is also outlined.

Jan 1, 1983

By M. Pakala, Z. Fan, Ray Y. Lin

Deposition of hard chromium coatings using electrodeposition is accompanied by emission of hexavalent chromium mists which is a carcinogenic. Hence alternative chromium deposition technologies are being investigated. Sputter deposition is a strong candidate to economically deposit hard chromium coatings in an environmentally friendly way. Chromium coatings of 2-3 µ m thickness were deposited on plain carbon steel coupons using RF magnetron sputter deposition. Depositions were carried out with 0 to 22 vol% nitrogen in the plasma. Structure of the coatings was studied using x-ray diffraction analysis With increasing nitrogen contents, formation of the two nitride phases was observed. The pure chromium phase was detected in coatings with up to 7% nitrogen in the sputtering gas. The solid solution of nitrogen in the pure Cr phase coating was identified by shifts of Cr x-ray diffraction peaks to higher d-spacing. The microhardness of the coatings deposited at a substrate temperature of 200°C showed an increase in hardness with increasing nitrogen content from 600 kgf/mm2 (5.9 GPa) at 0% nitrogen to I250 kgf/mm2 (I2.25 GPa) at 9.5 % nitrogen and a subsequent decrease in hardness to I 100 kgf/mm2 (11 GPa) beyond 9.5 % nitrogen in the sputtering gas. This corresponds to the formation of the hard Cr2N phase, at 9.5 % nitrogen, and CrN phase, at I5.7 % nitrogen. The reported bulk hardness values of Cr2N and CrN are I600 kgf/mm2 (I5.7 GPa) and I 100 kgf/mm2 (11 GPa) respectively. For pure Cr phase coatings, there is a slight increase in hardness for coatings deposited at 7. I % nitrogen from that without nitrogen in the sputtering gas. This could possibly result from the solid solution strengthening of the Cr lattice by nitrogen. For films deposited at 200°C, phases of the deposited films seem to be the overwhelming factor in controlling the microhardness.

Jan 1, 1998

By Rodney L. Williamson

Optimal estimation theory has been applied to the problem of estimating process variables during vacuum arc remelting (V AR), a process widely used in the specialty metals industry to cast large ingots of segregation sensitive and/or reactive metal alloys. Four state variables were used to develop a simple state-space model of the V AR process: electrode gap (G), electrode mass (M), electrode position (X) and electrode melting rate (R). The optimal estimator consists of a Kalman filter that incorporates the model and uses electrode feed rate and measurement based estimates of G, M and X to produce optimal estimates of all four state variables. Simulations show that the filter provides estimates that have error variances between one and three orders-of-magnitude less than estimates based solely on measurements. Examples are presented that verify this for electrode gap, an extremely important control parameter for the process.

Jan 1, 2001

By R. W. Bartlett

The extensive central Idaho black sand placer deposits are a potential source of rare earth elements, particularly the heavy rare earth elements that are not prevalent in commercial bastnasite deposits. These placers derive from the Idaho batholith. The geology, occurrence, and extent of these deposits are reviewed and the diverse mineral assemblages and complex mineral chemical compositions of these sands are described. Niobium, yttrium and thorium are also present in significant concentrations. The results of prior mining practice, including concentration and separation of the heavy minerals are reviewed. Technical approaches to extraction of rare earths from Idaho black sand concentrates are discussed.

Jan 1, 1992

By Dilip Banerjee

"This paper discusses the Advanced Technology Program (ATP)'s support over the last decade to the development and use of process modeling as a tool to address some of the challenges faced by the U.S. metal casting industries. A particular focus will be given to highlight how process modeling can be used to improve the manufacturability of components needed for high performance and critical applications. The challenges associated with the design and production of thin-walled, cast parts with intricate and complex internal geometries will be discussed. Modeling issues associated with the control of the final grain structure in the solidified parts will also be addressed. This paper will describe the advantages of using appropriate mathematical models for designing new alloys for use in various applications.Finally, the role that ATP has played in uplifting the U.S. technological base through partnerships with industry and academia in high-risk research in order to bring to market new and improved products for the broader benefit of the nation will be discussed.ATP's BackgroundIn the 1980s, U.S. industries were losing market share to low-cost, high-quality manufacturers from Asian countries. Corporate leaders and policy makers determined that in order to sustain and grow market share, U.S. industries needed to improve their competitiveness and productivity through product and process innovation. There was evidence that companies were systematically under-investing in leading-edgetechnologies and failing to complete the development of new technologies [l]. There were also arguments in academic circles that pointed to a potential market failure in the area of early-stage technological developments. These concerns provided impetus for creation of the Advanced Technology Program (ATP) within the National Institute of Standards and Technology through the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988. Through a rigorously competitive, cost-shared partnership with industry, ATP fosters the development and broad dissemination of high-risk technologies that offer the potential for significant broad-based economic benefits to the United States."

Jan 1, 2004

By Alessandro Navarra, Joël P. T. Kapusta

"The converting cost modeling software introduced by Ng et al. in 2005 [1] has been extended to consider the reprocessing of reverts and copper scrap. The original model evaluated the operational costs of a Peirce-Smith converter; algebraic relationships had been implemented with arrays (to represent matrices, vectors and scalar ratios). The new software brings flexibility to the underlying thermochemical balances, by using linked-lists instead of arrays. It is now possible to consider the blending of several feeds, including reverts and scrap.The software computes the length of the converting cycle from the Fe and S content of the charge together with the blowing rate; the times required for other operations (charging, skimming and idle time) are also accounted for. The costs of consumables such as flux, fuel, oxygen or compressed air are all evaluated. Downtime, labor, and materials for converter lining repairs are also considered. The software is easily extended to examine the costs of alternative operating strategies or injection technologies such as sonic single pipe injection and sonic shrouded injection. The potential cost benefits of alternative operating procedures and technologies are discussed through example calculations."

Jan 1, 2009

By R. Tunold, Y. J. Zhang

"The cathodic kinetics of aluminum deposition from aluminum chloridealkali chloride melts was studied by use of electro-cnemical transient techniques at 700 °C. Aluminum deposited as an insoluble product on a glassy carbon electrode and as a partly soluble product on a tungsten electrode. The deposition was found to be a simple diffusion controlled process involving the exchange of three electrons. The diffusion coefficient of aluminum chloride was calculated - 4.sx10-s cm2 ·S-I in AlCl3 -NaCl-LiCl melts and 2.6x10-s cm2 ·S-' in AlCl3 -NaCl-KCl melts. For AlCl3 -NaCl-CsCl system the diffusion coefficient exhibited some uncertainty due to nucleation. The determined rate constant of aluminum deposition reaction was on the order of 10-' -10-2 cm'S:' Constant potential electrolysis was carried out. TiB2 was well wetted by aluminum. The species of melts penetrated into graphite and glassy carbon but not into tungsten. The diffusion coefficient of species in glassy carbon was evaluated.IntroductionAluminum chloride electrolysis is attractive for its power saving of 30%. Different process to circumvent the conventional chlorization to obtain aluminum chloride economically, such as directly chlorizating mixture of Al~03 and C in a cell with A-shaped laminated bipolar electrodes by rising chlorine (1), or by use of a composite anode (2), will promote the electrolysis technology to be realized industrially. With the appearance of the Alcoa process periodically there are studies on the kinetics of aluminum deposition. Some discrepancies seem to exist on the mechanism of aluminum deposition. Borne studies (3,4,5) showed that the deposition of aluminum was hindered by diffusion process in the melts. M.Gabco et a1. (6) claimed a preceding dissociation of a complex being the rate controlled step. This paper presents our results on the mechanism of aluminum deposition from the study by use of transient techniques and some results from constant potential electrolysis."

Jan 1, 1988

By J. Y. Foley

Platinum-group elements (PGE) are preferentially associated with chromian spinels, including high-iron chromite, magnesian-chromian hercynite, and chromian magnetite in clinopyroxene-rich upper stratigraphic portions of the Tonsina ultramafic complex in southern Alaska. Ratios of Pt:Pt+Pd are proportional to chromium content in the associated chromian spinels. The maximum PGE content of geochemical rock samples from Dust Mountain is greater than 20.000 ppb (>0.6 oz/ton) with minor gold values. The maximum PGE content of tabled chromite concentrates is 3.430 ppb (0.1 oz/ton) at Dust Mountain. 1.029 ppb (0.03 oz/ton) at Sheep Hill, and 1,749 ppb (0.051 oz/ton) at Bernard Mountain. High-iron chromite at Dust Mountain yields tabled chromite concentrates with Cr:Fe ratios between 0.5 and 1.2. Lower PGE contents are found in more chromium-rich chromitites from Sheep Hill and Bernard Mountain that yield concentrates with Cr:Fe ratios between 1.0 and 2.8. Platinum-group minerals include amalgams. arsenides. PGE alloys, and sulfides. These minerals are between 3 and 40 microns in size and are concentrated along grain boundaries and fractures of metasomatically and hydrothermally altered chromian spinel grains.

Jan 1, 1987

By Qiu Dingfan

The Slurry Electrowinning Process (SEP) is a new hydrometallurgical method and clean technology, Sulfide ores can be treated by the SEP without S02 emission and the sulfur from the sulfides can be recovered in element form which is easy to stockpile and can be transported at low cost. In a special slurry electrowinning cell one can achieve at the same time the leaching of elements from the feed and the electrowinning of metals from the electrolyte, Because the anode reactions are utilized for leaching of some elements the consumption of the energy is decreased, SEP also has the advantage of separation some elements, It is especially suitable for treatment of complex concentrates containing Pb, Cu, Au, Ag and S, which could hardly be accepted by any smelter. In this work, the behavior of different metals in this process has been studied and it was found that the separation of metals in some minerals is possible through the SEP, Beijing General Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (BGRIMM) has studied the possibility of the SEP to treat bismuth concentrates containing S, Be and F in laboratory and pilot-test scale as well as in commercial plants, The commercial plant was set up in 1997, It has been in operation since that time, According to the results of laboratory experiments and pilot- plant test, a new plant to treat complex gold minerals was set up in 1998 and is in operation in 1999

Jan 1, 2003

By Carl C. Nesbitt

A process has been developed to recover and recycle metals from wastes of brass foundries which contain copper, zinc and lead in various quantities. Tests were conducted to evaluate several leachants, including sulfuric acid, ammonia, hydrochloric acid, cyanide and acetic acid, and to determine the optimum leaching conditions, such as air flow rate, initial copper ion concentration, temperature, and agitation strength. Sulfuric acid containing copper sulfate with dissolved oxygen is the most successful leachant. More than 99% of the copper and zinc originally present in the waste was dissolved, while only 0.5% of the lead entered the solution after 14 hours of leaching. The leaching mechanisms of copper, zinc, and lead are proposed. The copper and zinc can be recovered from the solution by electrolytic processing. The unleached residue may be converted to a lead carbonate which can be converted to litharge at 400-450°C and to massicot at temperature above 500°C by calcination.

Jan 1, 1995

By André L. B. Bittencourt

The copper content in the waste slag represents the greatest loss in the process of Caraíba Metais' Smelter. By identifying the variables responsible for copper stabilization in the slag, a minimization on these losses is expected, producing a granulated waste slag with a copper content lower than 0.7%. Statistics resourses such as control charts, Pareto's diagram and correlations curves were applied for the data obtained in the first semester of 1992. The magnetite and the calcium oxide contents in the slag of the Flash Smelter Furnace were most prominent variables. Some operational changes introduced during and after this investigation have shown good results.

Jan 1, 1994

By Yuzhe Zhang, Matthew Andriese, Jiann-Yang Hwang, Guanghui Li, Zhiwei Peng, Tao Jiang

The microwave power absorption characteristics of iron oxides, including Fe2O3, Fe3O4 and Fe0.925O, have been studied by determining dielectric loss and magnetic loss distributions in 0.05-m-thick oxide slabs irradiated with 1.2-kW, 2.45-GHz microwaves. The results reveal that the dielectric loss is the main factor contributing to microwave absorption in Fe2O3 and Fe0.925O, while the magnetic loss dominates the power absorption in Fe3O4 below its Curie point. Uneven power distributions are observed in the slabs and this phenomenon becomes even worse at high temperatures at which the permittivity increases significantly. Quantification of power absorption in the oxides is of great importance for efficient and uniform microwave heating

Jan 1, 2015

By Robert L. Stephens

"It can be argued that one of the most important property of any material is cost, since this property detennines the applications for which a material can be considered. Despite growing demand and production for commodity metals such as copper, nickel, zinc, lead, and tin, the cost of these metals has been steadily decreasing in real terms. The only way that metal miners and producers can remain financially viable in the long term is by continuing to lower their cost curve through the implementation of new metals production technologies. This paper reviews technological developments in the production of copper, nickel, zinc, lead, and tin that have or threaten to redefine the cost curves for these metals.DisclaimerThe opinions expressed in this paper the author's, and are not necessarily those held by the author's employer, Cominco Ltd.IntroductionThis meeting will discuss many novel technologies and processes for producing metals and materials with specific properties that will enhance the applications ranges for the material or will allow entirely new applications to be developed. However, in every real-world case, the cost of the new material or process is an important property that determines which applications the material or process can be used in. Other properties that are important depend on the applications.A recent press report (1) discussing the potential replacement of aluminum radiators with copper radiators in pickup trucks and sport utility vehicles provides an interesting example to reinforce the importance of cost in materials selection. In this case, the displacement of aluminum by copper is being considered because of the more favorable heat dissipation characteristics of copper. Heat dissipation has become more important due to the development of hotter-burning V-8 and V-6 engines. For this application, engineers also consider cost, weight, size, durability, and manufacturing process. The report stated that the development by the International Copper Association (ICA) of the ""CuproBraze"" manufacturing process for heat transfer products was an important development. This technology produces 845 radiators that weigh less, are more uniform in quality, and are potentially more compact. They are also expected to cost less in high production quantities than copper units produced in the past, last three to four times longer than soldered copper radiators, and the process also eliminates the use of lead solder from the manufacturing process."

Jan 1, 2000