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By B. Larsen, S. Z. Nascimento, K. Fidje, J. P. M. Amaro, H. Gran

Safe and good operation of Søderberg electrodes is dependent upon high quality electrode paste coupled with correct electrode operating procedures. Good electrode performance depends further on proper melting and densification of the electrode paste. The melted paste should form a dense and viscous layer that prevents gasses from the baking process to move upwards. Both paste cylinders/blocks and briquettes can be used, but the procedures may differ between the various types of paste products. For briquette columns the formation of the important viscous layer is obtained through melting and densification of the briquettes. By basic rheological studies of electrode paste and by laboratory tests of briquette beds at isothermal conditions we have achieved a better understanding of the melting process. The effects of temperature gradients, pressure and friction between the briquettes and the electrode casing have also been evaluated qualitatively in pilot scale experiment and in industrial scale tests. The paper shows that melting and densification starts at a considerable lower temperature than the pitch softening temperature. It is concluded that the formation of a briquette electrode column depends on parameters as temperature, briquette column pressure and the friction. Operating conditions influencing the above parameters should be defined and established for each specific furnace operation. Such factors are e.g., charging and slipping procedures, column heating and electrical conditions.

Jan 1, 2004

By A. Kondratiev

A structurally-based viscosity model for fully liquid silicate slags has been developed and applied to the Al2O3-CaO-‘FeO’-SiO2system at metallic iron saturation. The model links the slag viscosity to the internal structure of melts through second nearest neighbour bonds concentrations taken from the quasi-chemical thermodynamic model. This viscosity model describes experimental data over the whole temperature and composition ranges within the Al2O3-CaO-‘FeO’-SiO2system at metallic iron saturation and can now be applied to other industrial slag systems.

Jan 1, 2004

Experimental studies on viscosity of titanium bearing slags have been reviewed and the assessed data were used in extending the capability of the structurally related viscosity model for silicate melts, developed by the present authors. Experimental data on ternary and higher order systems containing CaO, MgO, MnO, FeO, Al2O3, TiO2, Ti2O3, SiO2were assessed and used. The newly extended viscosity model represented the viscosity behaviour over broad temperature and composition ranges. The structural role played by TiO2and Ti2O3in silicate network structure is discussed with respect to their effect on viscosity of melts. Keywords: viscosity model, TiOx containing silicate melts, silicate network structure.

Jan 1, 2004

By J. M. Lottering

Paper written on project work carried out in partial fulfilment of B Eng (Chem) degree Operational factors influencing the electrostatic separation of mineral sands were investigated in a laboratory separator. Measurements were collected online by means of an optical sensor using diffused reflectance spectroscopy to determine the mineralogical composition. The results have shown that the roll speed and potential were the dominant operating variables, collectively explaining more than 83% and 68% of the product grade and yield, respectively. In contrast, the feed rate, temperature and position of the plate did not affect separation. The effect of the ambient relative humidity, ranging from 10% to 45%, could not be assessed conclusively and at best appeared to have a weakly beneficial effect on the product grade. Keywords: process modelling, high tension roll separator, mineral sands

Jan 1, 2006

By D. R. Hack, N. M. Sirakov, M. L. Feves, M. Iwanowski

This paper presents a new approach capable of volume calculation of 3D reconstructed geological objects. The method is based on a well-known concept that states the volume of an object can be computed as the limit of the sum of the area of infinite number of sections, which cut the 3Dobject. Since shortage of input data about the geological objects usually exists, Mathematical Morphology and polynomial interpolation are employed to generate a set of intermediate sections between the set of initial sections. A Mathematical Morphology tool is applied to compute the area of the two of sets initial and generated 2D sections. Regularities together with Delaunay Triangulation are employed to perform 3D reconstruction. A formula is developed on purpose of volume calculation of the reconstructed objects. A set of ten theoretical, electrical resistivity cross-sections were generated and used to perform an experiment to show the capability of our approach to estimate the volume of complex 3D geological object in case of sparse 2D sections. The volume determined using the morphological approach presented in this paper show good correlation with the volume of the original input object. Advantages and disadvantages of our volume calculation approach are discussed in the conclusion of this paper. Keywords: electrical resistivity, sparse 2D sections, geological objects, smooth 3D visualization and volume calculation.

Jan 1, 2003

In exploiting the ultra-deep, narrow reef ore bodies of the Witwatersrand, the ventilation and cooling systems within the stopes play a critical role because of high concentrations of active workers. This paper examines the heat, ventilation and cooling effects of a number of different stoping layouts for narrow reef mining in ultra-deep operations in very hot rock. The stope ventilation and cooling needs are driven primarily by the difference between the air temperature and that of the rock front being excavated. These needs depend on the face utilization, geometry, face advance (rate and direction), layout, backfill, use of water and machinery1,2,3. Detailed studies of different stoping configurations have been undertaken for mining operations extending to depths of 5000m below surface, where virgin rock temperatures approach 70°C. Extensive work has been completed with regard to evaluating ventilation and cooling requirements to maintain air reject temperatures of 28°C wet-bulb and better. This knowledge is being used to determine overall cooling requirements, reduce operational costs and maximize the efficiency of cooling systems. These issues are important when considering both the local and regional air conditioning systems and the most effective application of in-stope chilled water.

Jan 1, 2001

By G. B. Dukes

Scaling of rockpasses was problematic at Tau Lekoa Mine prior to production commencing in 1991. High horizontal stress levels relative to the host rock mass strength have been instrumental in causing the observed scaling. Scaling has been more pronounced in the deeper rockpasses and these are monitored regularly. Rehabilitation of one of the reef passes and one of the waste passes was required in the period 1999 to 2001. This paper describes the extent of the problems experienced to date as well as the rehabilitation completed.

Jan 1, 2006

By T. S. Seleka

Laser surface melting has been conducted on a 304 stainless steel (SS) with the aim of enhancing pitting corrosion resistance of the material. This process involves rapid melting of the material?s surface followed by rapid solidification to refine the microstructure. This includes the dissolution of inclusions such as MnS, FeS, CrxCy, and other minor constituents. The microstructures as a result of laser treatment were observed by means of optical microscope and also confirmed by the XRD. The glow discharge optical emission spectroscopy (GDOES) was utilized for chemical analysis. Changes in hardness were observed by using a Vickers microhardness tester. Pitting corrosion tests on laser treated and untreated samples were conducted according to ASTM G48-92 to evaluate mass loss and pitting morphology. Laser surface melting improved the pitting corrosion resistance of this material in a chloride-containing environment.

Jan 1, 2007

By B. D. Paphane

Since the commissioning of the Tati Hydrometallurgical Demonstration Plant (HDP), which produces Ni and Cu cathodes as well as Co salt from sulphide concentrate employing Activox® technology for leaching, no kinetic data has been generated from the plant under normal operating conditions, from start-up to steady state. Therefore, this study seeks to determine the rate of reactions in the leaching circuit with a view to obtaining kinetic data for the system under the current operating conditions. Within the five-compartment autoclave operating at temperatures of 105°C to 110°C and 1100 kPa pressure, the extraction of Ni, Cu, and Co ions into solution is achieved through the oxidation of the sulphide concentrate using approximately 50 kg H2SO4 per ton, 10 kg NaCl per ton, and 1.21 kg O2 per kilogram of S2-. The autoclave reactions showed complex kinetics, with the reactions proceeding via some intermediate(s) before the formation of products. The results suggest that the reactions were dependent on the size of the metal ion of interest and the concentrations of the metal ions in the Tati concentrate as well as in chloride leaching. The order of the leaching rate constants was Fe2+ > Cu2+ > Ni2+ > Co2+ in all the compartments studied. The rates of leaching were also found to decrease as the concentrate moves from compartment 1 to compartment 4. For compartments 1 to 3, leaching was observed to be preceded by dilution of the repulp liquor (copper raffinate). The leaching rate for compartment 5 was slightly lower than that of compartment 1 but higher than the rates of compartments 2, 3, and 4 for all the metals studied. Keywords kinetics, hydrometallurgical plant, Activox

Jun 1, 2013

By L. Andrews

Nickel is recovered as a by-product of the platinum-producing process operated by Anglo Platinum. The metal is mined mainly as sulphide minerals contained in platinum ores. These pass through the concentrating, smelting and converting process route and nickel is finally recovered by electrowinning. Smelting of the concentrated ore in the electric furnace produces a melt with a high slag to matte ratio. The resulting furnace slag is granulated and later milled and floated to recover matte. A project was initiated to investigate the distribution of nickel in the slag in order to improve recovery. Slag samples were examined using a combination of chemical and mineralogical techniques. The granulated slag was found to consist mainly of a silicate glass phase, which reflects the composition of the molten slag in the furnace. Nickel occurs as free matte granules, as matte phases locked inside the glass, and in the glass phase itself. Whereas nickel in the matte is as sulphide, most of the nickel in the glass phase appears to be oxide- bound(i.e. in solid solution). Milled slag as flotation feed showed recovery-limiting features such as free matte with oxidized surfaces and unliberated matte inclusions in the slag. The biggest nickel losses, assuming no tapping problems, are in the glass phase solid solution. Only around 40% of nickel would be recovered from the slag, even under ideal conditions. Spoon and pot slag samples were also examined to see if casting and crushing would improve recovery. Although larger and therefore more easily recovered matte phases formed, nickel partitioned into crystalline silicate phases, limiting the maximum theoretical nickel recovery to 70%.

Jan 1, 2004

By N. Anacleto, S. Ganguly

Reduction of Groote Eylandt (Australia) and Wessels (South Africa) manganese ores using CH4-H2-Ar gas mixture was investigated in a fixed bed laboratory reactor in the temperature range 1000?1200oC. The extent and kinetics of manganese ore reduction as a function of gas composition and temperature were determined by on-line off-gas analysis using mass-spectrometer and dew point sensor. Morphology of ores and its change in the course of reduction was examined by optical and scanning electron microscopy. Phases of raw materials and reduced samples were analysed by XRD and EPMA. Manganese oxides were reduced to carbide Mn7C3. High extent and rate of reduction by methane-containing gas in comparison with carbothermal reduction were attributed to high carbon activity in the reducing gas, which was in the range 15 - 50 (relative to graphite). The reduction rate of Wessels manganese ore increased with increasing temperature. Reduction rate and extent of Groote Eylandt manganese ore achieved maximum at 1050oC. The decrease in rate and extent of reduction of Groote Eylandt ore at higher temperatures, particularly at 1150-1200oC, was due to sintering and formation of semi-liquid silicate slag. The optimum conditions for the reduction of manganese ores were established as follows: a) temperature: 1150-1200oC for Wessels and 1050-1100oC for Groote Eylandt ores, b) methane concentration: 10-15 vol%, c) hydrogen concentration: above 30 vol%, (d) size: 1-3 mm. An addition of lime (10-15 wt% CaO) to the Groote Eylandt manganese ore increased melting temperature of slag and significantly increased the rate and extent of reduction at elevated temperatures.

Jan 1, 2004

By E. T. Boshoff

Paper written on project work carried out in partial fulfilment of B. Eng. (Metallurgical Engineering) The weathering of kimberlite can be accelerated with cations in solution if swelling of the kimberlite occurs in contact with the weathering medium. The type and amount of swelling clays present, along with the surface charge and cation valence, determine the degree of swelling that can occur. Crystalline swelling occurs by the incorporation of cations in the interlayer spacing of the silica sheets. Kimberlite exposed to cupric cations showed very strong weathering, indicating that this type of weathering may be considered a viable process option. Kimberlite fines generated after weathering with monovalent cations showed poor settling behaviour compared to kimberlite weathered with di-, and trivalent cations.

Jan 1, 2005

By Bjørn Nilsen, Werner Stefanussen

The construction of the Guaigui Multipurpose Project includes a 74 metre high concrete face rock fill dam, a 350 metre long diversion tunnel and a 350 metre long spillway tunnel. The topography in the project area is very steep, and the rock masses are characterized as soft rocks. The stability of the 80 to 100 metre high dam abutments and the excavation of the tunnels in soft rock conditions have caused various challenges and problems to be solved. Limited pre-investigations have called to a great extent for estimation of parameters for the stability calculations based on experience. The preliminary calculation of the stability of the planned rock slope above the spillway intake platform has been carried out by conventional partial factor methods and by use of a computed based Slide Program. The two methods of calculation give different results , and that rock support is necessary to obtain an acceptable factor of safety for a slope inclination of 52o. The input parameters for the rock mass characteristics need to be verified for the permanent calculations.

Jan 1, 2006

By B. E. Ydstie, B. F. Lund, K. R. Løvåsen, B. A. Foss

The paper presents sensitivity analysis for a dynamic model of submerged arc silicon furnaces. The model we study, called ?Simod?, was developed by Elkem in cooperation with NTNU and Sintef. It is today a much used tool in Elkem for operator training and analysis of the dynamic behaviour of the silicon production process. The aim of our work is to bring the simulator tool closer to industrial practice, and construct a mechanism to adapt the model to the behaviour of a running process, online. The paper presents the results of the sensitivity analysis that has been undertaken for important parameters in the Simod model. The parameters associated with the process inputs are electric power loss, loss of fixed C and reactivity of carbon. The output signals that have been investigated are fed quartz, tapped silicon and silica. The paper also interprets the results of the sensitivity analysis in a process operation context.

Jan 1, 2004

By E. Kapilashrami, S. Seetharaman

Refractory/metal interactions and associated reactions are significant during casting as they can lead to inclusion formation. High-temperature interactions between aluminosilicate refractories and molten steel were studied in the present investigation using the sessile drop method. The changes in the contact angles between molten iron with well-defined oxygen levels and substrates of silica, mullite (3Al2O3?2SiO2) as well as commercial refractories were measured in the dynamic mode. In all cases, the reaction led to slag formation. The experiments were performed under isothermal conditions at 1823 and 1873 K. A known and constant oxygen partial pressure was imposed above the iron drop, through appropriate CO-CO2-Ar mixtures. For all substrates, the contact angles started decreasing due to the lowering of the surface tension of iron, as oxygen was imposed on to the system. When a critical level of oxygen was reached, slag started forming at the drop/substrate interface and at this stage, the contact angle dropped suddenly. Subsequent behaviour of silica and mullite was observed to be different, with SiO2showing a non-wetting behaviour. In the case of SiO2substrate, there were also deep erosions along the periphery of the drops and there was slag accumulation at the sides of the metal drop, probably due to Marangoni flow and/or SiO(g) formation. SEM and EDS analysis of the substrates revealed that the formed slag was fayalite. The thermodynamic criteria for slag formation and possible mechanisms of the reaction are discussed in the light of the experiments. Key words: silica, mullite, fayalite, corundum, slag formation, sessile drop.

Jan 1, 2004

By B. Friedrich

In a German governmental funded three-year research project, a closed loop recycling process for Nickel-Metalhydride-Batteries (NiMH) is under development. Today the discarded batteries are used in the steel industry as a cheap nickel source. Cobalt and rare earth (RE) are slagged and lost for reuse. The entire value of the metals in discarded Ni-MH is estimated to be 4?-4.5 ?/kg. Spent NiMH-batteries containing 36?42 per cent Ni, 3?4 per cent Co and 8?10 per cent rare rarth (Ce,La, Pr, Nd). The dismantled and processed NiMH-batteries are melted in a DC electric arc furnace producing a nickel-cobalt alloy and a slag phase highly enriched with RE-oxides. The key to success in this process is to find a suitable slag system, which ensures best separation of NiCo-alloy from the rare earth oxides and high concentration of RE in the slag. Different oxidic and halogenic slag systems are investigated in the melting process. So far a slag system based on 65per cent CaF2 and 35 per cent CaO delivers the best separation of the two phases and metal yields. A slag with a composition of 20?25 per cent La, 13-16 per cent Ce, 1.5?2.5 Pr, 4.5?6.5 per cent Nd is obtained and further treated to misch metal hydro-/electrometallurgically. The first results of the influence of rare earth oxides on the density of CaO-CaF2slag system are shown at 1600°C. Keywords: battery recycling, CaF2, CaO, rare earth oxides, slag characterization, density measurement

Jan 1, 2004

By M. Tangstad, B. Monsen, H. Midtgaard

The increased attention towards reducing emissions of fossil CO2 due to its potential global warming effect has resulted in a focus on renewable resources, as charcoal. Since charcoal is produced from growing wood it does not contribute to global warming. This paper gives a brief review of consequences of and reasons for using charcoal in the silicomanganese (SiMn) production. Results are presented from practical SiMn smelting experiments, on a pilot scale, using charcoal as reduction material and comparing with coke. As slag- and CO2-reactivity are important for furnace performance these features have also been measured.

Jan 1, 2004

By S. R. Sankaranarayanan, T. Sowmya

Slags and fluxes used in metallurgical processes are typically made up of oxides (especially silicates), with additions of fluoride and carbonaceous matter. Despite the efforts made towards understanding the role of slags in various processes, little information is available on the structure of these slags. Tools such as X-ray diffraction, spectroscopy, and electron microscopy could be used for this purpose. This paper is based on an ongoing spectroscopic and structural investigation of slags and related materials. Spectroscopic studies of various commercial slags (predominantly ferrous), ores, glass and related materials, covering a wide range of compositions, have been carried out to understand the structure. The infrared spectra were recorded, predominantly, using FTIR spectrometer (Bruker IFS 66U) spanning 4000 to 100 cm-1using the KBr pellet method. The resolution was typically 4 cm-1. The spectral outputs have been compiled in terms of bands present (corresponding to different bonds) and then compared with the typical bands expected for such bonds. Efforts are in progress to identify the trends with respect to the chemical composition?for example, the effects of SiO2, Al2O3, and non-bridging oxygens. Data obtained so far indicate some trends such as (i) a shift in the Si-O band (969 to 1099 cm-1) towards a higher wave number with increasing silica content (almost 2 to 92 weight percentage) and (ii) further strong shifts as a function of the alumina content. These are being further investigated structurally and in terms of chemical composition/parameters. Keywords: slags, silicates, structure, spectroscopic analysis, shifting of bands

Jan 1, 2004

By R. P. Jensen

This is a sampling of the papers presented at the conference, the proceedings can be bought from the SAIMM Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) computational techniques allow treatment of gases, liquids and solids in the same simulation. ALE methods include the ability to treat shock waves in gases, liquids and solids and the interaction of shock waves with each other and with media from one of the other categories. ALE codes can also treat explosive detonation and the expansion of the explosive gases and their interaction with air and solids. ALEGRA is a 3-D ALE code that has been developed at Sandia National Laboratories over the past few years. ALEGRA has been applied to a 2-D simulation of presplitting using decoupled explosives in rock blasting with very interesting results. The detonation of the explosive at the bottom of the hole sends a shock wave up the borehole driven by the explosive gas expanding into air. The explosive gas compresses the air against the stemming column where it rebounds and recompresses at the bottom of the borehole. This type of ringing takes several cycles to damp out. The explosively induced expansion of the borehole is also treated by ALEGRA as well as the shock wave imparted to the rock. The presentation of this paper will include several computer animations to aid in understanding this complex phenomenon.

Jan 1, 2000

By D. Janicijevic

This paper describes the process of scraper winch pull force measurement and shows the results of the actual winch pull force in extreme stall situations as well as during the face and gulley cleaning. It was found that by slowing down the motor and causing it to slip, torque up to 3.5 times higher than the nominal can be developed, resulting in the same increase of winch pull force. On the other hand, measurements of the actual force needed for cleaning of the face and the gully have shown that the currently used winches are too powerful. The extra torque that can be developed by the already too powerful winch motor poses a significant danger and necessitates the implementation of measures that will eliminate this risk.

Jan 1, 2008