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By P Knight, P A. Walker, H E. Speight

Pushback 8 South is the final cut back on the south wall of the East Pit at BHPBilliton?s Mt Whaleback iron ore mine in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. Development of the cutback commenced in 1999 and is now nearing completion with ultimate pit walls up to 300m high. This paper describes the geotechnical, structural and hydrogeological setting of PB8S, reconciliation between design and slope performance and the slope engineering techniques used to effectively manage the risks associated with the slope. These techniques include slope buttressing and sequential mining with waste backfilling, as well as a detailed program of displacement and hydrogeological monitoring, structural mapping and slope stability assessment. During the course of slope formation recent developments in remote slope displacement monitoring using radar and remote structural mapping using terrestrial photogrammetry have also been applied. Aspects of the PB8S slope management plan are relevant to many large scale open pit slopes. This paper provides geotechnical practitioners with information which may be helpful in managing geotechnical risk in similar environments.

Jan 1, 2006

By M. G. Senyur

This study aims at investigating the structural characteristics of backfilling material. In this regard, spatial arrangement of solid particles and associated voids in a unit mass of coal mine refuse as backfilling material were tested. The materials were produced from coal mine refuse of Zonguldak Colliery, Turkey. The experimental procedures were developed to determine their void ratio (or its equivalent porosity), bulk density and the shape properties of constituent particles. The orientation fabric and the co-ordination number were the other two fabric elements determined. The filling materials were sieved and their particle size distributions were found. The results obtained by experiments were related to the particle size distribution parameters, namely, the coefficient of uniformity and the effective size. It was concluded that mean value of void ratio is correlated with coefficient of uniformity. The standard deviation of porosity as an index of fabric heterogeneity is clearly correlated to effective size. By an original experiment, the frequency distribution of coordination number was observed as binomial in uniformly graded materials. Also, the co-ordination numbers of test mixtures were calculated by the Marsal method and results obtained showed a good correlation between the minimum particle size and number of contacts per unit area.

Jan 1, 1998

By M. E. Rossi

All large-scale applications of conditional simulations intend to benefit from the ‘correct’ (or’ accurate’) characterization of uncertainty, adequately describing the variability observed from the data and its impact on the final objective. This paper discusses a number of relevant issues that highlight the extent to which, in reality, a model of uncertainty is dependent on the random function model chosen. Often in the presence of large number of conditioning data most available random function models will provide similar models of uncertainty. When conditioning is scarce, the resulting models of uncertainty will vary more widely, since the final output will depend mostly on the underlying assumptions of the model chosen. The application described in this paper is taken from a large porphyry Cu operation in northern Chile, and it demonstrates the impact of several variables on the resulting models of uncertainty. In particular, some of the decisions involved include the number of conditioning data and the underlying Random Function model used (Gaussian or indicator-based). Also, implementation-specific parameters must be decided upon, such as grid size used, random number generator, simple or ordinary kriging, multiple-grid simulation, and simulation of irregular three-dimensional bodies (as opposed to regular grids). Some practical guidelines are proposed to deal with these decisions.

Jan 1, 2003

By S. Ganguly

Slag samples taken from adjacent to the furnace wall of a submerged arc ferromanganese smelting furnace have been found to contain high concentrations of K2O. To characterize the phase equilibria relevant to these slags experimental studies have been carried out to determine pseudo-ternary sections of the form ?MnO?-CaO-(SiO2+Al2O3) with a fixed Al2O3/SiO2 weight ratio of 0.65 and 6.0 wt% K2O for temperatures in the range 1523-1673 K. In the pseudo-ternary section investigated the primary phase fields are found to be mullite, 3Al2O3?2SiO2; corundum, Al2O3; spinel, MnO?Al2O3; manganosite solid solution, (Mn,Ca)O; dicalcium silicate,2CaO?SiO2; gehlenite 2CaO?Al2O3?SiO2; anorthite CaO?Al2O3?2SiO2; kalsilite KAlSiO4 and leuciteKAlSi2O6. It was found that the presence of K2O in the slag decreases liquidus temperature in the anorthite and gehlenite primary phase fields. The manganosite primary phase field is expanded in the direction of increased (Al2O3+SiO2) and the liquidus temperatures in the manganosite primary phase field are increased significantly with the presence of K2O in the slag.

Jan 1, 2007

By R. Boom, L. Holappa

In the present paper, microstructure changes of solid-state reduction of industrial chromite pellets and lumpy ore were investigated with SEM/EPMA. To simulate the reactions in the packed bed zone of the Submerged Arc Furnace (SAF), carbon monoxide was used as the reducing agent, with the presence of graphite in proximity to chromite. The experiments were carried out at 1500 °C. Scanning electron microscopy was used to observe and analyse the structure and composition changes of the chromite samples. It was found that reduction of lumpy ore generally took place slower than that of pellet. In all samples, chromite reduction proceeded faster in the outer part of the sample than in the centre part. The reaction mechanism is discussed on the basis of experimental results and earlier investigations. The possibilities to optimize the FeCr production process are also discussed.

Jan 1, 2007

By O. F. Ochonogor

Laser metal deposition (LMD) is an additive manufacturing technique whereby a stream of metal powder is consolidated by a focused laser beam on the surface of a substrate or engineering component. The interaction zone between the laser beam and powder particles is scanned superficially, generating tracks of deposited material. The tracks are overlapped in a deposition strategy in accordance with slices of a CAD model. Successive layers of material are built up to fabricate a near net shape part. In this work, the technique is used to fabricate metal matrix composites (MMCs) by using an elementally blended feedstock combining metal and ceramic powders in the melt pool, which melt and solidify to create the required morphology. Ti6Al4V + TiC MMCs were produced with 10, 20, and 30 vol.% reinforcing ceramic, and Zr + TiC MMCs were fabricated with 10, 20, and 30 vol.% TiC. The deposited thin walls were analysed using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and indentation testing. In both systems, the analysis revealed the presence of partially melted TiC particles embedded in the metal matrix along with fine dendrites of re-solidified ceramic. The dendritic structures in the Ti-based composites were confirmed as TiC, whereas in the Zr-based composite the Zr metal reacts with theTiC to form ZrC, leaving Ti in solid solution. Both the MMCs show an increase in microhardness with increasing ceramic (carbide)content, reaching a peak HV0.1 value of 500 in the Zr- based MMC and HV0.1 of 550 in the Ti based MMC.

Jan 1, 2012

By M. Tangstad, B. Monsen, H. Midtgaard, R. Ishak, M. Syvertsen, I. Solheim

Charcoal is an interesting reducing agent because it is produced from growing wood which is renewable and does not contribute to global warming, provided that there is a balance between the felling of timber and growth of trees. In the biocarbon project the possibilities for using charcoal is investigated as well as other biological based and renewable reductants for ferroalloy production. The background for the project is that the Norwegian ferroalloy producers wish to contribute to reduction of CO2- emissions. This paper focuses on the use of charcoal instead of coke for the production of manganese alloys, and the consequences of doing so. Results from practical SiMn smelting experiments on a pilot scale have previously been reported, where only 12-14 % Si in the metal was obtained when charcoal was used. Recently we have attained satisfactory 18 %Si also for charcoal, but good results are indeed dependant on good furnace performance. There is no tradition for using charcoal for manganese production in Norway. A change from using mainly coke to the use of some charcoal will demand new routines for furnace operation, raw material and off-gas handling. Hence, characteristic properties of charcoal, which may cause change of furnace operation, have been measured and are compared to coke. The following results are presented: ?Thermal abrasion strength together with CO2- reactivity; important parameters for the performance of the upper part of the furnace. ?Coke-bed resistance; it will increase with the use of charcoal (a review of new results). ?Slag reactivity; a relevant method for testing slag reactivity of industrial reductants is of interest. The suggested method can serve for comparing slag reactivities towards graphite.

Jan 1, 2007

By A. E. Lewis

The emphasis of this paper is on the characterization and testing of the slag produced by a secondary lead refinery. This work forms part of a broader investigation aimed at reducing loss of valuable product from the process as well as minimizing the environmental impact of the process wastes. It was this work that led to a critical examination of the standard waste classification tests. Characterization of the slag was carried out using a number of complementary techniques. In the broader context, the slag characterization aided in identifying process deficiencies and thus was a critical tool in suggesting potential for process optimization. For this study, the slag characterization provided a relatively comprehensive picture of the composition and properties of the slag, which facilitated understanding the behaviour of the slag under batch test conditions. On the basis of quantity of hazardous components alone, the slag is hazardous according to South African Acceptable Risk Limits (ARL). However, when both the quantity and the leach potential of the hazardous components is taken into account, standard waste tests carried out by three independent agencies indicate that the slag should not be classified as hazardous according to local regulations. Also, according to United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) limits, which are independent of the quantity of the waste, the slag would not be classified as hazardous. The standard waste tests used by the independent agencies was the Toxicity Characteristic Leach Procedure (TCLP), a test which was developed by the US EPA to classify hazardous wastes. One of the requirements of this batch test is that it should be quick, simple to carry out and that the results should be reproducible. Previously, the applicability of the TCLP test to mineral processing and metallurgical wastes has been challenged on a number of points. Additional testing of the slag was carried out using both the TCLP and the Synthetic Precipitation Leach Procedure (SPLP) recommended by the American National Mining Association as being more appropriate for mineral processing wastes. The particular physical and chemical characteristics of the secondary lead slag highlighted additional limitations of both the TCLP and SPLP tests as standard laboratory batch procedures. Keywords: environmental protection, secondary lead processing, slag, leach testing, TCLP, SPLP, ARL, hazardous waste, batch tests

Jan 1, 2000

By L. F. Contreras

In open pit mine design, it is customary for geotechnical engineers to define the appropriate slope design angles within practical limits. The conventional approach to slope angle design is based on the comparison of calculated stability indicators, such as the factor of safety (FS) and the probability of failure (PF), with generic acceptability criteria not directly related to the impacts of failure. A major drawback of this type of approach is related to the difficulty of defining meaningful acceptability criteria. An alternative methodology of pit slope design is proposed, where the economic impacts of potential slope failures are calculated and used as the elements on which to apply the acceptability criteria for design. The methodology is based on the construction of a graph, referred to as a risk map, that relates the probability of exceeding the economic impact of slope failure to the magnitude of the impact measured in monetary terms. The process includes the analysis of a selected number of representative years of the mine plan and slope sections of the pit areas to define the required inputs for the construction of the risk map. The paper discusses the concepts used in interpreting the probability of slope failure, and describes the approach followed for the estimation of the economic impacts of slope failure and the construction of the risk map. Finally, the two main uses of the risk map are discussed, including the comparison with acceptability criteria for the evaluation of a specific open pit design and the comparative analysis of open pit design options in terms of value and risk to identify optimum pit layouts.

Jan 1, 2015

By D. S. Richards

Computers have revolutionized the collection of data on modern mines. Never before has it been possible to collect data from all aspects of the mining value chain at rates now common. With this has come a new challenge. Deriving information from these copious amounts of data and disseminating it. This problem is being exacerbated by technical software systems, which use proprietary and binary data formats that severely inhibit the flow of data and information both across departments and the larger organization. Generally this had led to data duplication and data redundancy. The Gemcom Enterprise Mining System (GEMS) makes use of industry standard, secure and open databases for all its data objects. It manages multiple users accessing the same bits and bytes in the database, preventing data duplication and redundancy. Developed in the Microsoft BackOffice ® environment, GEMS is also able to leverage the enormous amount of tools available in this environment, whether it’s for e-mail notification, reporting or data capture. Microsoft’s® Active Server Pages are one of these tools. These are standards used to create dynamic and interactive web pages with links into databases and many other objects. The real example outlined in the text, demonstrates how a user anywhere in the world is able to login to a web page and run a query that returns a report with vector plots of performance for the user-selected time frame. As integration is tightened between the various components of the mining value chain, the importance and reliance on ASP pages will grow as the need for management information tools develops. Keywords: mines, computers, ASP, GEMS, integration, Microsoft, Management Information.

Jan 1, 2003

The corrosion behaviour of a low carbon steel was investigated in synthetic seawaters with and without Sr2+. It was found that strontium substitutes for calcium in aragonite, rather than precipitating as discrete strontianite (SrCO3). The aragonite deposits that formed in the presence of Sr2+ were finer than those that formed in the absence of Sr2+. It is believed that an increase in the strontium content of aragonite induces a decrease in its solubility, which in turn results in a higher nucleation rate of the precipitates. Furthermore, the growth rate of aragonite is decreased by the presence of Sr2+in the solution. It is concluded that Sr2+is an essential ingredient in any artificial seawater when calcareous deposits are investigated on steel. Keywords: corrosion, seawater, calcareous deposits, strontium, aragonite.

Jan 1, 2007

By A. Mainza

It is common practice in the mineral processing industry to use hydrocyclones for particle classification. However, classification in the UG2 platinum circuits using the hydrocyclone poses major challenges due to the differences in density between silica and chromite, the two major components of this ore. Silica, the PGM carrying component, has an average density of 2.7 and the barren chromite component has an average density of 4.5. When conventional and flat bottom cyclones are used there is a misplacement of particles due to differences in density leading to inefficiencies in the classification by size. As a result of the density effect, coarse silica reports to the overflow, resulting in loss of recovery, and fine chromite reports to the underflow, resulting in loss of milling capacity and unnecessary production of fine chromite. A classifier based on a different concept was required in the classification of UG2 platinum ore. The three-product cyclone, which is a hydrocyclone with two concentric vortex finders to produce three distinct products, has been tested in the UG2 ore application and indications are that misplacement of particles due to differences in the component densities can be minimized through the use of this unit. Industrial and pilot plant trials were conducted and indications are that the three-product cyclone can be installed to selectively produce a middlings stream that can be screened using Pansep screens to provide a screen oversize, which is predominantly coarse silica that can be preferentially reground to recover the PGM values contained in the coarse silica.

Jan 1, 2005

By G. V. R. Landman

In the early days of underground coal mining, the use of explosives to break coal resulted in a large number of disastrous methane and coal dust explosions and consequential loss of life. Research by the British, French, US authorities, amongst others, introduced many practices that significantly reduced the occurrence of such incidences. The use of explosives designed to be safe in a methane atmosphere, plus the creation of a second free face were two such practices which became commonly used in coal mines all over the world including southern Africa. With its associated coal cutting equipment and labour, the cost of creating a second free face is significant and this, together with the constant drive to reduce mining costs in a competitive market, causes mine management to regularly question the need for the second free face. Also, the safety and nature of permitted explosives has changed considerably since the days of black powder and nitroglycerine-based explosives with the introduction of water-based explosives. In southern Africa mining regulations pertaining to the blasting of coal has its origins in British research which was largely done in the first half of the twentieth century. More recent research by the US Bureau of Mine has resulted in a deeper understanding of some of the mechanisms of methane ignition by explosives and suggests that some of the earlier regulations can be relaxed to a certain extent without compromising safety. This paper gives an overview of the original research done in Europe and the more recent work in the USA, to give mine management and regulatory authorities a deeper understanding of the important safety issues when using explosives in a methane atmosphere. It also suggests that blasting off the solid is no less safe than using a second free face providing certain safety procedures are followed.

Jan 1, 2000

By J. L. Viljoen

t has long been the drive of the industry and all operations to create an environment that is free of injury and illness. We have come a long way; the leaders, executives, managers, supervisors and workers are to be commended for relentlessly driving to create, what I call a ?White Flag Day Every Day?. Yet I am also aware of the huge shift we still need to create in the industry, on the operations and in the workplaces to have them free of injury and illness. Keywords People, values, care, trust, belief.

Jan 1, 2011

By D. N. Ferguson

The separation of certain minerals by electrostatic techniques can be difficult due to their similar electrical conductivity, and any technique to improve this can be useful in certain difficult separation applications. Triboelectric differences between mineral scan result in certain minerals acquiring small positive or negative charges prior to inductive electrostatic separation. By changing the polarity of inductive separation, relative changes in mineral recovery can be observed, which may be beneficial. In this brief study a JKTech mineral liberation analyser (MLA) was used to evaluate the effect of polarity change on selected minerals present in the Richards Bay Minerals deposit, and an approximate triboelectric series based on this behaviour is presented.

Jan 1, 2010

By M. D. Budeba

Determining the efficiency of a surface coal mine operation is an essential activity, which can help in deciding on the optimal use of input resources, including effective capital allocation, in generating a desired quantity of coal of a specific quality. Mines operate today in challenging conditions, with diminishing reserves of high-quality coal, remote location of new coal deposits, infrastructure problems, environmental legislation, and the effects of climate. All these have an impact on the performance of a mine. Given such challenges, a company has to be technically efficient compared to other existing coal producers in order to generate profits. It can use the measurement of its efficiency to evaluate its productivity, benchmarking this against the best-performing mines and determining optimal variables in order to minimize slack and achieve the desired outputs. This paper discusses the use of Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) in evaluating the efficiency of a surface coal mine supply chain for the coal export market. The supply chain is considered to be composed of subprocesses that are modelled as a multistage system. Numeric examples will be used to illustrate the application of DEA.

Jan 1, 2014

By L. du Plessis

The name FISH (Fully Integrated Sort House) refers to a class of technology deployed at Jwaneng Mine final diamond recovery. The FISH concept is based on three pillars, namely: ?Improved sorting efficiency FISH is based on laser technology, which is more efficient than hand sorting for certain product categories. Laser sorting is based on measuring in-elastically scattered light from molecules and this is referred to as Raman spectroscopy. The Raman scattered light occurs at wavelengths that are shifted from the incident light by the energies of molecular vibrations ?Availability of production information Roller gap diamond size distribution information is generated on line for upstream process optimization ?Improved product security A ?hands-off? philosophy reduces security risk during operation and maintenance of the plant. In addition, a number of lessons were learnt about the application of new technologies in the industry: ?The required human competency profile demanded by new technology should match the available competencies of the operational staff ?An integrated information management system should be fully functional for both production management and diamond control purposes ?Operational feedback must be correctly evaluated to identify design, maintenance, training and operational issues so as to accelerate the maturity of the new technology within the time span of the sustainable operations project ?Project execution and technology maturity risks have to be evaluated and married to ensure risk mitigation by means of suitable project resource and contracting model selection.

Jan 1, 2003

By D. F. Malan

This paper gives an overview of the difficulties associated with determining the strength of hard-rock pillars. Although a number of pillar design tools are available, pillar collapses still occur. Recent examples of large-scale pillar collapses in South Africa suggest that these were caused by weak partings that traversed the pillars. Currently two different methods are used to determine the strength of pillars, namely, empirical equations derived from back analyses of failed and stable cases, and numerical modelling tools using appropriate failure criteria. The paper illustrates that both techniques have their limitations and additional work is required to obtain a better understanding of pillar strength. Empirical methods based on observations of pillar behaviour in a given geotechnical setting are popular and easy to use, but care should be exercised that the results are not inappropriately extrapolated beyond the environment in which they are established. An example is the Hedley and Grant formula (derived for the Canadian uranium mines), which has been used for many years in the South African platinum and chrome mines (albeit with some adaptation of the K-value). Very few collapses have been reported in South Africa for layouts designed using this formula, suggesting that in some cases it might yield estimates of pillar strength that are too conservative. As an alternative, some engineers strongly advocate the use of numerical techniques to determine pillar strength. A close examination unfortunately reveals that these techniques also rely on many assumptions. An area where numerical modelling is invaluable, however, is in determining pillar stresses accurately and for studying specific pillar failure mechanisms, such as the influence of weak partings on pillar strength. In conclusion, it appears that neither empirical techniques nor numerical modelling can be used solely to provide a solid basis for conducting pillar design. It is therefore recommended that both these techniques should be utilized to obtain the best possible insight into a given design problem. Owing to the uncertainties regarding pillar strength and loading stiffness, monitoring in trial mining sections and in established mining areas is also an essential tool to test the stability of pillar layouts in particular geotechnical areas.

Jan 1, 2011

By J. W. Joubert, R. C. W. Webber-Youngman, M. D. Budeba

"SynopsisCost estimation for surface coal mines is a critical practice that affects both profitability and competitiveness. New mines require these costs to be estimated using available information before a project begins. The competitive advantage of a new mine depends on it being both efficient and cost-effective. Low-cost producing mines have a higher chance of survival in a low-price environment than do high-cost producers. The competitiveness and profitability of a coal mine is based on the costs of production and the supply position on the cost curve. There is no single method of cost estimation, and the available methods consider only one or a few variables, leaving out multiple variables that could significantly affect the estimation of mine costs. Mining companies are thus searching extensively for a method that will increase accuracy in the estimation and evaluation of mining projectsThis paper highlights the shortcomings of the available approaches and proposes a data envelopment analysis method to develop a frontier for effective surface coal mines, and the use of a parametric method for modelling the costs and productivity of new mines to ensure effective competitiveness. The models will extend the capability of estimation and the accuracy of estimates using the efficient decision-making units, by considering the optimal mine-specific and external variables affecting costs.IntroductionCoal contributes 25% of the world’s primary energy needs, after fuel oil, which contributes 35%. The world energy demand, estimated over the period 1990 to 2030, is expanding at a cumulative annual growth rate (CAGR) of 1.7% (Schernikau, 2010, p. 14). This emphasizes the need for enhancing the production of existing mines, as well as opening new mines in order to increase the supply of coal."

Jan 1, 2015

By E. Demir

Transportation cost is the dominant cost and accounts for almost half of the total mining cost in surface mining. Therefore, determining transportation cost is critically important for the economic feasibility of mining projects. Turkey produces around 85 million tons of lignite per annum. The biggest state-owned company, Turkish Coal Enterprises (TKI), accounts for 43 per cent of the country?s total lignite production. Around 85 per cent of the produced lignite is used in power plants for electricity generation and 15 per cent is used for domestic heating in cities and urban areas. On behalf of the Turkish government, TKI distributes around 2 Mt of lignite annually, at no cost to poor needy families countrywide in accordance with Social Assistance and Solidarity Funding aid. Subcontractors are utilized for lignite transportation, and conflicts arise due to the different transportation cost calculations at different mines. A robust model that provides unbiased cost estimations is therefore of paramount importance. This paper presents the transportation cost estimation software, NAKMAL, that has been developed for estimating the transportation cost of lignite from the mine face, including excavation and loading, to various final destination points through five different transportation scenarios. NAKMAL was designed using VisualStudio.NET, validated using field data and some case studies, and it is currently being used by TKI for calculation of transportation cost country-wide.

Jan 1, 2012