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By J. R. Low, M. Gensamer

During the course of an investigation into the drawability of automobile-body sheet steel, it became apparent that certain advantages would be possessed by a deep-drawing steel with a very low yield strength, but almost normal tensile strength, provided a reduction in yield strength could be accomplished without sacrifice of ductility and fine grain size. It would also be desirable to have this steel free from strainaging; that is, free from the tendency for the yield point to return after it had been eliminated by straining. It was known that wet hydrogen treatment acted to eliminate aging, but as carried out by other investigators, at relatively high temperatures, this treatment resulted in grain coarsening. It has been established by some of the experiments reported in this paper that all of these objectives can be accomplished by treatment in wet hydrogen at a low temperature, in the neighborhood of 720°C. The time of treatment is relatively short (about 3 hr. to completion with 20-gauge sheet) if the water content of the hydrogen atmosphere is made fairly high, say almost 30 per cent by volume. At this temperature, the grain size remains fine in the time required. After this treatment sheet reduced the usual amount by cold-rolling has a grain size of about A.S.T.M. No. 7. The yield point is completely eliminated, and the yield strength is reduced to a very low value, in the neighborhood of 15,000 lb. per sq. in. The stress-strain curve departs gradually from the straight-line elastic part after the fashion of nonferrous deep-drawing alloys. This elimination of the yield point is accompanied by a very low indentation hardness; for example, 32 Rockwell B or even lower. There is no aging as measured by increase in the yield strength upon aging at room temperature or for 3 hr. at 200°C., after stretching about 10 per cent in tension. Tensile strength is only slightly less than the box-annealed sheet, seldom dropping much below 40,000 lb. per sq. in. Elongation is practically unchanged, or increased slightly. The term yield point, as here used, refers to the phenomenon of heterogeneous deformation occurring at a substantially constant load, observed principally in annealed low-carbon steels. If such a steel is loaded in tension, the load increases steadily with elastic strain, suddenly falls, fluctuates slightly about some constant value for a time and then begins to rise again as deformation proceeds. The maximum initial load before the sudden drop is generally called the "upper yield point"; the value of the load where deformation proceeds at a

Jan 1, 1943

By A. L. Simpson, J. M. Edwards

The application of the Scintillometer to radioactivrty surveys in boreholes of oil wells has made it possible to determine bed thickness with a high degree of accuracy. This fact, combined with known relation of logging variables, makes thin bed porosity determination practical. With the use of the Scintillometer a method hot been derived whereby the apparent level of radiactivity, as recorded on radiation logs, may be converted to the true level. The true level of radioactivity is that level to which the recording pen would have traveled had the detector remained at a given depth for on infinitely long period of time. This factor is: radioactivity level, Ra, is the apparent radioactivity level, T is the bed thickness, D is drag, and L is the length of the detecting system. This method depends entirely on accurate measurements of bed thickness and drag. A thorough discussion of the concept of time constant and logging speed as related to drag is undertaken. INTRODUCTION Neutron curve interpretation has become one of the accepted methods for porosity determination in oil field practices. A great deal of literature has been published about neutron derived porosities, but this has been concerned with thick beds, or possibly even averaging of a series of thin beds as a single unit. There has been a lack of written information on methods whereby porosity can be evaluated for beds less than 10 ft in thickness. In certain areas, production is derived from relatively thin formations. The importance of thin bed evaluation, the fact that the Scintillometer is an adequate tool for this application, and the general lack of published information concerning neutron porosity for thin beds are the fundamental reasons for presenting this method of porosity determination. This concept is not put forth with the idea of discounting existing methods, but is merely suggested as a modification of other accepted methods of porosity determination which makes no allowance for quantitative evaluation of thin beds. The effects on the neutron log of counting statistics, statistical variation in the porosity of earth materials, and hole size must be taken into account to obtain neutron derived porosities. Since these effects have been described in past literature, the authors have not made an attempt to go into the subject in detail. With the use of statistical and repeated sections on the log, it may be determined which responses on the log actually correspond with lithologic changes. EFFECT OF DRAG AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO TIME CONSTANT AND LOGGING SPEED Before entering into a discussion of porosity determination of thin beds, there should be a thorough

Jan 1, 1956

By George W. Hezzelwood

THE Balatoc mine, one of the Haussermann group,† is on the Island of Luzon, the largest of the Philippine group, about 260 km north of Manila, and 12 km from the city of Baguio The Baguio district is the most important gold-mining area of the Philippines, with 14 producing mines in 1939, milling 2,358,804 tons of ore, yielding [P]40,881,048, approximately 55 per cent of the total Philippine production of [P]74,131,216 PRODUCTION HISTORY The Balatoc mine began production In January 1929 with a 150-ton cyanide mill Increases in mill capacity have taken place as follows March, 1932, to 330 tons June, 1933, to 470 tons December, 1933, to ;15 tons July, 1934, to 700 tons December, 1934, to loon tons May, 193, to 1200 tons October, 1938, to 1300 tolls April, 1939, to 2000 tons January, 1941, to 2T50 tons Production during the period of expansion has steadily increased in total value in spite of the fact that grade of ore milled has dropped-from $31 06 in 1929 to $5 78 in1940 Annual reports give production as shown in Table I, the average value, being based on gold at the old price of $20 67 per ounce [ ] GEOLOGY The ore occurs in quartz-calcite veins that vary in width from narrow stringers to mineralized zones 40 to 30 ft wide Wall rocks consist largely of diorites, with some andesite, and a fragmental breccia called locally the "Balatoc plug " Texture of the ore varies widely in the different vents-from a soft, highly altered, gouge material filled with quartz fragments through a soft, unaltered quartz-calcite to a hard, massive quartz ore Three major vein systems have been extensively developed, and smaller amounts of work have been done on several others These veins strike east-west to N 60°, clipping south from 50° to 90°, and are essentially tension breaks between a series of faults or shears striking N 30°E to N 30°E and clipping southeast from 50° to 90° The shear veins and tension veins probably formed more or less simultaneously,

Jan 1, 1942

By John A. Mathews

During the prosecution of the aircraft-production program in 1917 and 1918, the writer visited many plants engaged in the manufacture of motors, planes and parts, in carrying out his duties as chairman of the Committee on Aircraft-engine Forgings. On several occasions, when the question of expansion was discussed, it was noted that there was confusion in the use of the terms: the true coefficient of expansion, a physical constant, and distortion in hardening. One engineer, referring to a steel shown in the accompanying table, stated that he could not consider it for crankshafts because of its excessive coefficient of expansion, while another steel, also Iisted in the table, was said to be especially good because it had no coefficient of expansion, since it came out of the oil bath perfectly straight. Many years ago one of our employees designed a new oil furnace; when asked what became of the products of combustion, he replied: "There ain't any, we burn them all up." While the coefficient of expansion is not without its effect in volume changes in hardened steel, it is not a determining factor in the matter of distortion and going out of shape. Irregular heating, uneven furnace bottoms, and carelessness in withdrawing the part from the furnace, as well as the manner in which the part enters the quenching bath are of greater moment. Generally speaking, also, steels of relatively low hardening temperature will distort less than those requiring higher hardening heats. The coefficient of expansion must be considered in engineering design most frequently when different metals or alloys are used in the same construction. For example, the difference of expansion between a steel crankshaft and an aluminum crank case might be of real importance and a steel with no coefficient of expansion would be much less desirable than one with the normal coefficient. About 15 years ago, the writer made many determinations of the coefficient of expansion at low temperature ranges, usually between 20' and 100" C. Among the materials tested were: Pure forged electrolytic iron, 11.73 parts per million for l° C.; cast aluminum (99.93 per cent. AI.),

Jan 1, 1922

By John A. Mathews

During the prosecution of the aircraft-production program in 1917 and 1918, the writer visited many plants engaged in the manufacture of motors, planes and parts, in carrying out his duties as chairman of the Committee on Aircraft-engine Forgings. On several occasions, when the question of expansion was discussed, it was noted that there was confusion in the use of the terms: the true coefficient of expansion, a physical constant, and distortion in hardening. One engineer, referring to a steel shown in the accompanying table, stated that he could not consider it for crankshafts because of its excessive coefficient of expansion, while another steel, also Iisted in the table, was said to be especially good because it had no coefficient of expansion, since it came out of the oil bath perfectly straight. Many years ago one of our employees designed a new oil furnace; when asked what became of the products of combustion, he replied: "There ain't any, we burn them all up." While the coefficient of expansion is not without its effect in volume changes in hardened steel, it is not a determining factor in the matter of distortion and going out of shape. Irregular heating, uneven furnace bottoms, and carelessness in withdrawing the part from the furnace, as well as the manner in which the part enters the quenching bath are of greater moment. Generally speaking, also, steels of relatively low hardening temperature will distort less than those requiring higher hardening heats. The coefficient of expansion must be considered in engineering design most frequently when different metals or alloys are used in the same construction. For example, the difference of expansion between a steel crankshaft and an aluminum crank case might be of real importance and a steel with no coefficient of expansion would be much less desirable than one with the normal coefficient. About 15 years ago, the writer made many determinations of the coefficient of expansion at low temperature ranges, usually between 20' and 100" C. Among the materials tested were: Pure forged electrolytic iron, 11.73 parts per million for l° C.; cast aluminum (99.93 per cent. AI.),

Jan 1, 1922

In an address delivered at Atlantic City, N. T., Dec. 5, 1918, M. L. Requa, General Director, Oil Division of the United States Fuel Administration, said: We face a new era with all its uncertainties. We have arrived at the period of reconstruction and are face to face with the problems concerning which we have so often speculated during the past four years. In all this reconstruction work the United States must bear an important part. We are looked upon to lead the way, to blaze the trail and our actions will have a profound influence upon the rest of the world. If we are to succeed, even in part, we must not be ashamed to practise economy; we must not despise the clay of small things; the little savings; we must have the closest cooperation between Government and industry. Just as truly do we need civic awakening. All that we have ever fought for, the liberty of the world, is comprehended in the ballot; and yet how lightly we have held this great privilege! We need, if we are to reap in full the benefits of the past 18 mo., an awakened civic consciousness; a jealous guarding of government; a resolution that we will, each and all, perform to the full the duties imposed upon us by Democracy; that we will perform more completely the obligations resting upon us as citizens. During the war, industry, through sane cooperation and intelligent effort, has accomplished results possible of attainment in no other way. Government and industry have worked hand in hand and pointed the way o to future activities which, if realized, can but be most highly beneficial to all. If Government and industry are to fulfill their respective duties satisfactorily, it is obvious that there should be complete mutual confidence. Industry must not attempt to "put something over"-and Government must treat with industry upon the high plane that has characterized the public utterances of the President during the war. The individual who cannot conform to these high ideals should have no place in industry, and equally no place in Government. If the dignified and broad princi-

Jan 2, 1919

By C. R. Boyd

The sulphuretted ores of Carroll and Grayson Counties, Va., Ore Knob, Ashe County, N. C., and Ducktown, Tenn., in their general position, are in the prolongation of the same massive deposits. The existence of the extensive ore-bodies has been well-established, not only in a practical way, but by the careful research of a number of men of science, including Dr. T. S. Hunt, Professor Kerr, Dr. Genth, Rogers, Safford, Professor Egleston, Dr. H. E. Colton, the writer, and others, and described in one or more of the volumes of our Transactions, as well as in other publications. The greater quantity of' these ores being pyrrhotite, although much of them carry nonmagnetic disulphide, their reduction on the gronnd will probably lead to better results than an attempt to mine and ship them to distant places; and their use as sulphuric acid producers, to be employed in the cheap manufacture of valuable fertilizers, will be chiefly the subject of this paper. The great deposits of Carroll County, Va., are now nearer to railway transportation than any of the others, being six to eight miles from the Cripple Creek extension of the Norfolk and Western Railway, now being constructed, the grading of which is in an advanced state of completion. I am not able to state what are the present prospects of an early completion of the contemplated line of railway to Ducktown. For a long while, during the time those deposits were mined and reduced for their copper, the works were forty miles from any railway ; and the same may be said of Ore Knob, N. C. The deposits in Carroll and Grayson Counties, Va., being now the most accessible to cheap transportation, will naturally claim the greater part of our attention ; though it may be pertinent to remark, just here, that the ores of Ducktown, like those of Carroll and Grayson, Va., exist in the undecomposed levels as iron and copper sulphurets, much of which is a non-magnetic disulphide, as stated, with occasional exhibits of sulphides, such as covellite, erubescite, etc. There are, now and then, small quantities of silver, lead, and zinc,

Jan 1, 1886

By John Birkinbine

Secretary's Note.—In printing this paper in the present volume, the figures given in the pamphlet edition have been brought more nearly up to date, the product of 1899 being in many instances inserted. Iron-Ore Resources. In a paper presented to the Institute in 1897,* I discussed the iron-resources of the United States as then developed, calling attention to some principal sources upon which other countries depended. The following statement will give a general idea of the amounts, as compiled from the latest official records, of ores won, and metal produced, in the nations which are important contributors to the world's output. Unfortunately these are not all contemporaneous, since in some countries the statistics do not appear until after one or more years. The statement covers not only pig-iron and iron-ore, but also manganese-ore —the manganese mined being principally used in the production of spiegeleisen or ferro-manganese, and these alloys being generally included in the pig-iron output. Table I, which epitomizes the present situation, shows respectively the countries and the quantities of iron-ore and man-

Jan 1, 1901

By C. K. Leith

CERTAIN ideas on iron and steel sanctions to follow originated in a series of conferences held under the joint auspices of the War Department and Brookings Institute in Washington last spring. The views presented may be regarded as those of substantial segments of the steel industry. In view of the fact that steelmaking capacity can be so quickly converted to the production of armament, any effective control must necessarily include the entire steel industry and not solely the parts devoted to the production of implements of war. It must also be exercised all the way from production and shipment of raw materials through their ultimate conversion into finished products and use. Control will be dis- cussed under two main headings: (I) control of raw materials at the source; (2) control of steel capacity within the Axis countries.

Jan 1, 1944

By Peter Tegart

The discovery of gold in the Toodoggone River area is credited to Charles McClair who mined placer deposits in 1925, reportedly valued at $17,500. After he and his partner went missing in 1927, efforts to relocate their workings resulted in the formation of Two Brothers Valley Gold Mines Ltd. in 1933, in which the legendary Grant McConachie (first president of CP Air) played an active role. This was the age when the prospector first utilized the airplane to reconnoitre remote areas. What greeted the observer from the air was an area rich in orange and yellow colours characteristic of gossans formed by the oxidation of sulphides. However, Samuel Black, a Hudson Bay Company fur trader, had also noted in his diary as early as 1824, the unusual and many gossanous colours in the headwaters of the Finlay River. These gossans, coupled with white limestone bluffs and the presence of placer gold, attracted the first reconnaissance of the area by Cominco in 1929. Cominco was ever active in remote areas at this time. They staked and worked several base-metal showings hosted by limestone at the margins of intrusive stocks. These early workers also obtained erratic high gold assays from chalcedony float samples found in creeks draining into the Toodoggone River. However, because the samples gave inconsistent assays, no concerted effort was made to locate their source. Except for the occasional horse-supported prospecting party of the late 1940s and early 1950s, the area did not receive much attention until 1968. Work until this time focused on the base metal lead-zinc showings which contained attractive silver credits. Gold was not an attraction because of the set price established by the US government. The late 1960s saw the northward expansion of porphyry copper exploration into the Toodoggone. A program of gossan soil sampling (gossans which had attracted the early workers) was carried out by Kennco Explorations (Western) Ltd. in 1966-1967. They analysed for base metals in the field, using a cold extraction method. The Kemess copper- gold prospect was staked as a result of anomalous copper values from this early geochemical program. In 1968, Kennco continued the program of silt traversing and field geochemical testing. The samples were further subjected to multielement analysis consisting of copper, molybdenum, lead, zinc, cobalt, nickel, and silver at Kennco's North Vancouver laboratory. Several anomalous creeks, high in combinations of copper, molybdenum, and silver, were outlined. Some initial soil grids were also established. The fall of 1969 saw the return of Kennco prospector Gordon Davies and geologist Bob Stevenson to check out a well-defined molybdenum, scattered copper and silver anomaly in soils from a grid on the Chappelle claims. The subsequent analysis of several selected quartz felsenmeer floats yielded one assay which ran in the order of 0.25 kg/t (8 oz per st) gold and 2.2 kg/t (70 oz per st) silver. Subsequent trenching on the Chappelle claims exposed the source of float in a 4- m (134) wide vein of high grade gold-silver mineralization. These results led quickly to the realization that the district had precious metal potential. Subsequent exploration in the period 1969-1974 by Kennco resulted in the discovery of most of the gold and silver occurrences on the Chappelle and Lawyers properties. Several other gold and silver occurrences were found in this district by Cordilleran, Cominco, and Sumitomo, working the district during this period. Conwest optioned the Chappelle in 1973 and explored underground by adit entry as part of a one-year program. In 1974, Du Pont of Canada Exploration Ltd. optioned the Chappelle claims and in March 1980, using reserves developed on the A vein, placed the Baker mine into production at a rate of 90.7 Vd (100 stpd). The Amethyst zone on the Lawyers property, 8 km (5 miles) north of Chappelle, was found in 1973 by Kennco using continued, persistent followup prospecting of silver silt geochemical anomalies. A silt anomaly in the order of 3.4 ppm silver occurred in a stream flowing 300 m (984 ft)

Jan 1, 1985

APPROXIMATELY 3500 people thronged the Hotel Statler from February 18 to 24 for the 173rd general meeting of AIME. It was a technical extravaganza in that 82 technical sessions were held, at which 500 authors presented some 350 papers. Fortunately, Jerry Peirce, outgoing President, didn't have, to preside at all the events although after his year's stint as President, he has more than a nodding acquaintance with some of the latest problems in the mining, metals, and petroleum industries. Although the Welcoming Luncheon on Monday noon was the official opening of the meeting, Local Section Delegates and the Board of Directors convened on Saturday and Sunday, respectively. The large attendance and business like demeanor of these two groups was in accord with the energetic and competent service they have rendered the Institute through the year. To the applause of engineers and their wives who thronged the grand ballroom of the Statler for the Welcoming Luncheon, President Peirce introduced Oliver B. Hopkins, president of the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy and C. Gerow, secretary of CIM. Dr. Hopkins brought greetings from the CIM and expressed his satisfaction in the splendid spirit of cooperation that exists between the two Institutes. Dr. Hopkins is president, Interprovincial Pipe Line Co., Toronto, and counts as a close personal friend M. L. Haider, who is the 1952 President of AIME and lately of Toronto where he was a director and general manager of Imperial Oil Ltd. Mr. Haider will be known shortly as Mike to thousands of AIME members as he makes his Local Sections presidential tour. There was a pause in luncheon proceedings when Judge Harold R. Medina arrived amid the applause of the audience and somewhat breathless from his trip via motorcade from an antitrust trial against investment bankers at the courthouse downtown. With the Judge at his elbow, President Peirce took the opportunity in his introduction to good humoredly chide the Judge for the vixenish habits of public servants in their treatment of astute businessmen. The successful inventor who patents his inventions is a monopoly; the copper manufacturer who buys his competitors a drink is in collusion; but the business failure need only look to the government for a subsidy, Mr. Peirce pointed out. Judge Medina, quickly captured the admiration of his listeners. He spoke about justice, deploring partisan deals on nominations for judge-

Jan 1, 1952

By Thomas Egleston

The uncertainty of finding the exact equivalents fortechnical expressions in different languages has led me to think that a glossary of furnace-terms would be useful to members of the profession. I was led, some years ago, to prepare a small one, which has been found so very useful, that I have arranged one for presentation to the Institute, for four different 'types of furnaces, in the hope that it may prove of use to those who are in the habit of consulting foreign technical journals, I was further induced to make the attempt in the hope that it might tend to make the terminology less complicated than it now is, and also to make it more uniform over larger districts. The idea of referring to a drawing which expresses exactly what is meant, resulted from the necessity of presenting such subjects to students, and will, it is hoped, prove much more useful than the mere dictionary arrangement in alphabetical order. The drawing of the blast-furnace was prepared for me by Mr. J. P. Witherow, of Pitsburgh ; the drawing of the open-hearth furnace by Mr. S. T. Wellman, of Cleveland, and the reverberatory furnace by Mr. John Fritz, of Bethlehem. The bloomary-furnace is taken from my own paper* on Bloomaries, but, in order to have a complete furnace, I have introduced into the drawing of those used at Saranac the guard-plate used at Ironville. The interest which has been taken in the preparation of this paper by those gentlemen who have contributed the drawings, has been supplemented by gentlemen in Europe who have taken the trouble to read the proof. In France it has been read by Mr. Lodin, of the School of Mines, and by Mr. Chaper, of Paris, and in Germany by Dr. Wedding, of Berlin, and Mr. Luhrman, of Osnabruck. The preparation of the paper has been much more difficult than was anticipated, and its value has been very much enhanced by Dr. Raymond's kind assistance and cooperation; and to him, as well as to all the other gentlemen, Iam very much indebted. It was at first proposed to add to the paper the names of all the tools used in these various furnaces. It was found, however, that this would make such

Jan 1, 1888

Discussion of the paper of E. L. deGolyer, to be presented at the Colorado meeting, September, 1918, and printed in Bulletin No. 137, May, 1918, pp. 987 to1000. J. A. UDDEN,* Austin, Tex. (written discussiont).-I have read Mr. E. L. deGolyer's paper on The Theory of Volcanic Origin of Salt. Domes, with a great deal of interest. It seems to me a very able summary and discussion of the various theories set forth to account for the origin of our salt domes on the coast. It has always appeared to me that what we need is more observations on the facts involved and I regret very much that so far we have not been able to devote much time to the study of our salt-dome fields on the coast in this State. One feature that I do not find mentioned in Mr. deGolyer's paper is the so-called "cap. rock" overlying the salt. The nature of this rock seems to vary from a coarsely crystalline limestone to a fine-grained limestone containing sand and in which the limestone seems to be intersticially introduced material. We should be prepared to accept, if necessary, "more than one theory. To my mind, the igneous theory and the artesian theory, if I may so call it, may very well both be true. The "squeeze" theory and the artesian .theory may,, it seems tome also, jointly explain the phenomena. Neither the volcanic nor the salt "squeeze" theory explains the presence of the cap rock. The latter certainly does not explain the extensive sulphur deposits which occur in association with the cap rock. Whichever additional theory will be found best to explain the salt-dome structures, when we shall know them better, it seems to me that the theory first advanced by R. T. Hill and later elaborated by G. D. Harris, is not likely to be entirely replaced. Whatever cause has first set into action an upward circulation of gases and liquids in our salt domes, it seems to me that to a gentle circulation of the kind postulated by their theory is to be ascribed the uppermost and the later phenomena in our salt domes on the coast, with which we are most familiar; such as the cap rock, the sulphur, and the gypsum and anhydrite deposits.

Jan 7, 1918

THERE have been two important accomplishments of the Truman administration; the Hoover Commission report on inefficiency and waste in government and the report of the Paley Commission on the natural resources of the United States. Both reports are in the interest of the American people and should transcend the boundaries of political parties. Both reports are starting points for the formulation of policies which must be continuously revised to meet changing conditions. Regardless of the outcome of the election the principles embodied in these two great documents must be kept alive. The Paley report is right in our own bailiwick of mineral raw materials and it behooves us to study it carefully as our responsibility to posterity. To those in the mining industry who have limited their field of observation to moving rock or to metal prices it may come as a surprise that our production of such staples as copper, lead, and zinc has fallen behind increased requirements to the point that substantial tonnages must be imported. Iron ore is next on the list and everybody knows that such metals as tin, tungsten, chromium, manganese, nickel, and cobalt are imported almost exclusively. The crisis in raw materials pointed up by the Paley report has been reported annually by Elmer Pehrson and others to small gatherings at the Mineral Economics Division sessions at the Annual Meeting for as long as we can remember. In September 1949, the United Nations Economic and Social Council held an international resource conference at Lake Success which disclosed these same grave conclusions: - Consumption of raw materials is multiplying at an alarming rate, faster than discoveries or replacements are being made. - Production has been wasteful and utilization lavishly beyond enginee¬ing and practical requirements. - Industrialized nations are depleted and many raw materials consumed by industry are not found in the industrialized countries. - Nations formerly exporters of raw materials are increasingly building their own consuming industries. - Political forces in the world are limiting access to raw materials. The Paley Commission selecting the quarter century, 1950 to 1975, to project raw material requirements for the United States, pointed out obstacles to meeting these requirements, and made recommendations for procurement. It is not important that we disagree that cobalt consumption will reach 344 pct of present, or fluorspar 187 pct when iron and ferroalloys are only expected to increase 75 pct. What is important it that the fabulous appetite of the United States for mineral raw materials has consumed more since World War I than was consumed by the entire world in all recorded history prior to 1914. And, unless the people of the United States are satisfied to remain at their present standard of living (which is unthinkable) this consumption is correctly plotted by the Paley Commission as continuing to expand. If the U. S. is to continue on a course of progress, it must procure raw materials wherever it can at the lowest possible cost. Natural resources are clearly an area in which the broadest cooperation between industry and government must exist to achieve efficient exploitation, economic consumption, and expansion of sources of supply. The message of the Paley report requires action comparable to that of the North Atlantic Pact. Its implication is as significant as military preparedness. It is a world problem. It is a mining engineering problem. Don't let it die!

Jan 1, 1952

THE Nominating Committee appointed at the Division meeting in October and consisting of Frank A. Herald, A. W. Peake, C. R. McCollom, Joseph Jensen, H. W. Camp, C. P. Watson, F. Julius Fohs, George Otis Smith, J. B. Umpleby, J. M. Lovejoy and A. W. Ambrose, have presented the following ticket for the year 1929: Chairman, Joseph B. Umpleby; associate chairman, A. C. Rubel; secretary-treasurer, R. Van A. Mills; vice-chairman for Economics, Warren A.. Sinshein~er; vice-chairman for Engineering Education, H. C. George; vice-chairman for Engineering Research, Harry H. Hill; vice-chairman for Production, C. P. Watson;vice-chairman for Refinery Engineering, A. D. David. For Production Engineering Charles V. Millikan. is named vicechairman, with ,Charles E. Beecher, Glenn D. Robertson and W. W. Scott as associate vice-chairmen. The Executive Committee named is to consist of Joseph B. Umpleby, chairman with A. W. Ambrose, Charles E. Beecher, A. D. David, Glenn D. Robertson, H. C. George, Harry H. Hill, John M. Lovejoy, Charles V. Millikan, R. Van A. Mills, Earl Oliver, A. W. Peake, A. C. Rubel, W. W. Scott, Warren A. Sinsheimer and .C. P. Watson, members. Ballots will be mailed to members of the Division.

Jan 1, 1928

By H. V. Winchell

It seems to me that uniformity of mining law in North America must of necessity start with uniformity in each country. I understand that the Provinces of Canada have the right to make their own individual laws and conditions, to prescribe the terms under which the prospector or the applicant for mineral titles may secure the same. That is not true of the states in the United States. In this country, the Federal Mining Law was made applicable to the public domain, which, at the time of the adoption of this Act in 1872, was chiefly west of the Missouri River; it is impossible to locate a mining claim in most of our eastern states. It is true, however, that there are certain holdover rights, mostly obsolete, arising from the fact that at the time of the formation of the Confederation of States, the land that belonged to each state became the property of the Federal Government. I am not quite correc-t in that, it was sometime after the adoption of our Constitution, I think it was 1778, but those rights were largely, by agreement, surrendered to the Federal Government; but it is a fact that the great acquisitions of territory in the West, with the single exception of Texas, were of domain that came into the possession of the Federal Government and our Federal Mining Law applies to that territory. No state has the right to (by legislative enactment) enlarge upon the rights given by the Federal Mining Law, governing the acquisition of mining claims in its territory, within its boundaries. Each state, however, may, and some of them do, limit somewhat the rights given to the prospector. For instance, the Federal Mining Law provides that a claim may be taken, staked upon the public domain, of 600 ft. in width and 1500 ft. in length. Some of the states, like South Dakota and Colorado, have at times said "that is an excessive amount of land for a single mining claim; we will therefore limit it to 300 ft. or 200 ft. in width." There is, therefore, not any direct and immediate need for uniformity of mining laws in the United States, such as there might possibly be if it were considered at all desirable upon the whole in Canada. The initiation of mining rights under the Federal Mining Act is the act of discovery of valuable mineral in place, referring now to the lode mining claims, but the same is true of the placer claim. It is true that the emphasis has never been laid upon the word valuable and that

Jan 1, 1920

By David J. Raden

INTRODUCTION Economic deposits of phosphate are found at shallow depths (80 ft.) in central and northern Florida (Figure 1) where they have been mined since the late19th century(l).The present (1978) mining rate is approximately 40 million short tons per year of product (called “phosphate rock1”), which represents approximately 80% of the total U.S. production and 30% of the world production. The principal use of Florida phosphate is for the manufacture of fertilizer. There are 10 major mining companies and 20 active mines in Florida at the present time, strip mining approximately 5000 acres per year. The ore, known as "matrix," consists of gravelly clayey sands containing phosphate minerals (principally carbonate fluorapatite), quartz, and clay minerals. The clay to phosphate ratio is generally about 1:1 by weight and the sand to phosphate ratio ranges from, 1:1 to about 3:1. Mining is done by large electric draglines, which strip and cast the sandy overburden soils, generally 10 to 40 feet deep, and remove the matrix, generally 10 to 25 feet deep. Dragline bucket capacities are generally 20 to 45 cubic yards, but range up to 65 cubic yards. Mining cuts are usually 300 to 500 feet wide and up to several thousand feet long. The ore is cast into an earthen sump where high pressure water guns are used to slurrify it. Centrifugal pumps move the slurry through a pipeline to a beneficiation plant where the phosphate rock is separated from the waste sand and clays.

Jan 1, 1979

GEORGE F. COMSTOCK (author's reply to discussion*).-Mr. Thum's description of the effects of butt welding and spot welding on the micro-structure of steel are interesting and timely. The speed with which the changes noted by Mr. Thum must take place is indeed remarkable, but the writer has noted a similar very rapid diffusion of carbide in annealing a t a rather high temperature certain samples of soft sheet steel containing massive cementite segregated on a small scale. The massive cementite in such steel can be dissolved and distributed very quickly if the proper temperature is attained. Mr. Thum's explanation of the structure he found in the spot welds seems entirely reasonable, but the mystery of the decarburized material in the butt weld is one that might well be the subject of further research. The possibility of decarburization by air ,might perhaps be worthy of a little more consideration than he gives it, for the oxides formed would be gaseous on account of the presence of carbon, and hence not visible in the microscope, and the effect of the pressure might be to squeeze the carbon oxides, which would normally form blow-holes, out of the metal or possibly into such small volumes as not to be noticed The removal of carbon by liquation and squeezing into the fin would be an effect similar to the "bleeding" of a steel ingot that is rolled while the center is still liquid, giving a soft low-carbon interior in the finished section while the segregate was removed in cropping the pipe. This effect in Mr. Thum's butt welds could, however, only be obtained if the weld was heated to near the melting point of the steel, and if the carbon was considerably segregated in the bars at the start, for the first effect of the high temperature would be to promote diffusion rather than the contrary segregation and Equation. It is gratifying to learn from Dr. Ruder's remarks that his researches have resulted in no disagreement with the few points brought out by the writer's experiments. In addition to the three forms in which nitrogen may occur in iron that he mentions, it would seem that a fourth form is often found; This is apparently a eutectoid, like pearlite, and sometimes almost as coarse as the massive cementite seen in soft steel sheets that have been annealed for a long time. One of the things needed in the metallographic study of steel is an etching reagent that will distinguish definitely between nitride in this form and the more common pearlite or cementite.

Jan 6, 1919

By E. C. Harder

J. T. SINGEWALD, JR., Baltimore, Md.-I might say a word further in regard to the Miguel-Burnier district. I am sorry Mr. Harder is not here. I had hoped to be able to ask him a few questions in regard to some of the features of those deposits. This Miguel-Burnier district is the other district that I referred to that lies in the State of Minas Geraes. The interpretation that Mr. Harder gives to, these deposits is the same as that given by Harder' and Chamberlin in a previous paper, and that is that they consist of lenticular deposits of sedimentary origin in a series of rocks that also include lenses of limestone, but they seem to think that the manganese ores occur at a definite horizon and at a horizon different from the limestone. We found that the manganese ores occur at several horizons, as also do the limestone lenses, and the limestone masses are of the same shape as the manganese orebodies, so that our own feeling was that these manganese ores simply represent concentrations within the zone of oxidation formed as. a result of decomposition and replacement of this limestone. To the east of Miguel-Burnier there is a big bend in the railroad which cuts through, at right angles to the strike, this series of rocks. Here is shown very well both the local character of the limestone lenses and the local character of the manganese lenses in that, though the distance across the bend is only a couple of hundred yards, the limestone and. ,manganese lenses do not match up at all, and it also shows plainly that both occur at more than one horizon.. Consequently there is no reason why the manganese ore could not represent alterations of this limestone. The mine workings do not as yet give very definite information on this point in that they are all comparatively shallow and within what would be the zone of oxidation so that what they will grade into below that depth, we do not know. On the other hand, the character of the ore suggests that it may, represent such -a product in the zone of oxidation in that it tends to be quite earthy; whereas, if the manganese had been there originally as such it would have undergone the same metamorphism that the other rocks have undergone and one would have expected that it would have been converted into a hard manganese ore that would today stand out pretty much as do the iron ores of that same region and not have the soft, earthy texture which is a prevailing characteristic.

Jan 4, 1917

By Albert S. Trube

The purpose of this paper is to clarify the definition of compressibility and to present a uniform basis upon which instantaneous compressibilities of liquids and gases can be compared. The equations gaverning the instantaneous compressibilities of imperfect gases are derived and the concept of pseudo-reduced compressibility is introduced. Part of the data presented by Brown, Katz et a1 on compressibility factors for natural gases has been rearranged. A graph of pseudo-reduced compressibility vs pseudo-reduced pressure for various pseudo-reduced temperatures is presented. The need for additional work in relating the compressibilities of liquids and gases is discussed. This information should be of value to reservoir engineers in making non-steady state performance calculations in gas reservoirs. It should be of further use irz pointing the direction for additional research in the nature of liquid and gas compressibilities. INTRODUCTION With the increasing use of steady and non-steady state well and reservoir data, there is a corresponding increase in the importance of the various factors entering into such calculations. Increasing emphasis is being placed on the necessity for obtaining reasonably accurate estimates of the physical properties of the reservoir fluids well in advance of the more accurate laboratory data. One such factor is the isothermal coefficient of expansion of the media which are transmitting and attenuating the non-steady state pressure waves. The average isothermal coefficient of expansion, or "compressibility" is a complex function controlled by the physical properties of the formation and the fluids contained therein. The isothermal expansion coefficients for reservoir gases are usually quite variable, in many cases being highly-pressure sensitive. The coefficients for reservoir liquids tend to be pressure sensitive, but not nearly so much as reservoir gases. The coefficients for solids, usually expressed in terms of a "modulus of elasticity" are relatively insensitive to pressure variations within their elastic limits. For this reason, and also because many previous applications have been limited to rel- atively small pressure ranges, there has been a tendency to ignore the variable nature of isothermal expansion coefficients and treat them as constants. Also, the term "compressibility" by which these coefficients are generally designated is commonly confused with a similar term, z, used to define the deviation of an imperfect natural gas from the perfect gas laws. A clear distinction should be made at the outset between the term "compressibility", which is an isothermal coefficient of expansion of a substance, and the term "compressibility factor", z, which refers to the deviation of a gas from the perfect gas laws. Although the scope of this paper is limited to the compressibility of single phase natural gases, it is definitely related to the problem of accurately estimating the compressibilities of single phase hydrocarbon reservoir liquids, which will form the basis of a future presentation. BASIC PRINCIPLES The coefficient of isothermal compressibility of a substance, c, is usually determined from pressure-volume or pressure-length -measurements depending upon whether the substance is single phase gas, liquid, or solid. A convenient method for making such estimates for a finite change in pressure and volume at constant temperature is to use the well known equation V1-V2/V1 (p2 - p1) .....(1) Eq. 1 is negative because the volume of a confined substance decreases as the pressure is increased. In this case V1 > V2 and p2 > p1. This equation is useful in approximating the compressibilities of single phase gases and liquids undergoing small pressure changes. It is evident, however, that this equation is almost identical with the determination of Young's modulus of elasticity for solids. If the assumption is made that change in length is directly proportional to change in volume, as would very nearly be the case for a steel rod in tension within its elastic limit, then E5=-L1 (p2 - p1)/L1 - L2 .......(2) in which E. is the isothermal expansion coefficient, or Young's modulus of elasticity, for a solid. And further, for this special case L1 (p2 - p1)/L1 - L2 .......(3)

Jan 1, 1958