Search Documents

By James R. Hein

Manganese nodules from the Cook Islands (CI) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) are compositionally different from other nodule fields. CI nodules have relatively high cobalt concentrations and low nickel, copper, and manganese concentrations (e.g. Hein and Petersen, 2013). This reflects the predominantly hydrogenetic (seawater source) origin for metals in the CI nodules versus dual seawater-pore water sources for most other nodules. The concentrations of many critical and strategic metals have not been previously analyzed for CI nodules, so comparisons with other nodule fields have been limited. To address this, we analyzed a set of nodules distributed throughout the CI EEZ for a complete set of 67 elements, including all of the metals that may be of economic interest, such as the rare earth elements (REEs), yttrium, tellurium, niobium, zirconium, tungsten, titanium, and others (see selected elements in Table 1). In addition, we recalculated the tonnages of nodules and contained metals from nodule abundance areas (in square kilometers) determined by GIS ArcMap calculations based on JICA/MMAJ (2001) nodule distributions. The nodule tonnage calculated and summed from each abundance sector yields a total inferred resource estimate of 9.66 billion tonnes of nodules covering an area of 1.21 million square kilometers; using a cut-off of 6 kilograms of nodules per square meter, yields a median tonnage of 8.59 billion tonnes of nodules covering 687,647 square kilometers (Table 2).

Sep 14, 2011

By Yuta Yamamoto

Seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) which contain Au, Ag, Cu, Zn, and Pb have been interested in as a target of commercial mining these 15 years. Japan has large potential of SMS and a national R&D project for the mining has been active these 5 years. However, the economy of SMS mining is very bad, because the waste tailing disposal cost is very expensive in Japan. A slurry flushing method is experimentally examined in this study for the improvement of the economy. During the flushing, because of density difference between the metal-rich ore and the waste rock, a kind of gravity separation is possible. The results suggest a possibility of the actual application.

Sep 14, 2011

By Tracy Shimmield

Deep sea tailings placement (DSTP) techniques have been pioneered in Papua New Guinea (PNG): a mining reliant economy in a seismically active region, facing major environmental challenges in the safe handling and storage of mine tailings on land. Scientists at SAMS have researched impacts of DSTP on the marine environment specifically to inform and develop guidelines for the use of DSTP to reduce environmental impact, thereby lowering risk and increasing private sector investment. Guidelines have been established as regulation by the PNG Government providing reassurance to private investors, facilitating an increase in mining exports to 60% of total export. Researchers investigated the effects of DSTP at 2 PNG mines: Lihir Gold Mine which has been actively discharging tailings since 1996 and Misima Mine, closed in 2004 after discharging tailings for 15 years, allowing an assessment of the recovery of the marine environment after tailings placement. Research involved investigating ocean currents and mixing, the behaviour of metals and the effect of tailings on benthic communities including the risk of elevated metal contents entering the food chain. The research established a metal ?fingerprint? of tailings compared to natural sediments, which enabled the transport of fine tailings within the deep ocean to be ascertained.

Sep 14, 2011

By Tao Chunhui

The seabed deposits type and distribution are very complex at the hydrothermal field. In this paper, we provided an approach to study the seabed deposits classification at the Precious Stone Mountain hydrothermal field (PSMHF) using MultiBeam sonar data . The PSMHF was found in the Galapogas microplate at the Leg 3 of the Chinese COMRA 21st Cruise. Using this approach, the seabed deposits at the PSMHF are mainly classified into three types, which are rock, breccia and sediment, respectively. We can find the distribution of the three types of seabed deposits according to the sonar backscatter data. The rocks are mostly distributed around the hydrothermal vent. The breccia are located at the foot of the vent. Most sediments are distributed at the southwest to the vent due to bottom current. Combining with seabed video, TV-Grab sample and the backscatter data, we draw the map of the seabed deposits distribution at the PSMHF.

Sep 14, 2011

By Brian Parsons

In June of 2013, Odyssey Marine Exploration conducted sea trials of the newly installed SeaBat 7150 full-ocean multibeam sonar system on the M/V Dorado Discovery over the Fierberling Guyot in the northeast Pacific Ocean. Fieberling Guyot is located approximately 990 kilometers west of San Diego, California and it rises abruptly from the deep ocean floor (~4300 meters) to a minimum depth of approximately 438 meters. The SeaBat 7150 operates at two distinct frequencies, 24 kHz (shallow to 3000 meters) and 12 kHz (full-ocean depth greater than 2000 meters). Onboard operational data are managed by a suite of state-of-the-art software. A SQL Server 2012 database provides the highly specific management and visualization tools as ArcGIS 10, Micromine 2013, and Geobank 2013 database. The 7150 is mounted on a gondola one meter lower than on previous system and greatly reduces bubble interference. The 7150 generates 880 beams

Sep 14, 2011

By Marco Figoni

The increased interest on deep water minerals resources is a challenge for both mining and oil industry. The exploration and production of oceans minerals require a synergy between of different technologies. While mining industry is leading the dredging and processing part of the system, oil industry is contributing through development of ore lifting technology based on existing subsea knowledge. The paper presents an overview, based on published projects around the world, of different approaches to marine mining. Several exploration techniques and offshore production systems were already designed and assessed, all of them with apparently positive results. Exploration phase is well advanced and in continuous expansion allowing the discovery of increasing resources around the world of different nature but production can be considered to be in an early stage. Different from onshore mining, subsea operations require a closer cooperation with international and local authorities to preserve as much as possible the environment. There are still many uncertainties at respect and all the exploration process must be carefully evaluated to allow subsea mining to develop in a sustainable manner. Technically, mining at seabed was already demonstrated and the process is based on three main components, namely seafloor mining tools, riser and lifting system and production vessel support. This layout is based on the concept that ore must be disaggregated at seafloor first, transported to surface in form of slurry that must be dewatered before loading to be transported to processing plants onshore. The challenges are rising because the environment and safety must be taken into consideration as a priority when evaluating the efficiency of the system. The most critical challenges regarding the production operations, especially in deep water are the deep-sea excavation process, the transport of large slurry volumes, the slurry abrasivity, the power supply management and the subsea

Sep 14, 2011

By Hyung-woo Kim

This paper concerns about steering characteristics of pilot mining robot, named MineRo II, crawling on extremely cohesive soft soil using dynamic simulation software. The MineRo-II for deep-seabed manganese nodules, which aims at the use for pilot mining test, was manufactured in 1/5 scale of commercial mining capacity (see Fig. 1).

Sep 14, 2011

By Sup Hong

A pilot mining robot, named MineRo-II, has been developed by KIOST during 2011-2012. The pilot scale was defined as 1/5 of the commercial mining capacity, 1.5 million dry-tons of nodules per year. The development purpose of MineRo-II is to use for the pilot mining test planned in 2015. MineRo-II was designed to be self-propelled by electric-hydraulic power and remotely operated in real-time from aboard. The main operational functions are crawling on seafloor, pick-up and crushing of nodules, discharging nodules out to buffer. Prior to MineRo-II, a test miner (MineRo-I) was developed in scale of 1/20th in 2007, and performed two times sea trials in 2009 and 2010. The results of performance tests were evaluated and utilized for the concept of MineRo-II. The design concept aimed at the expandability of the mining capacity based on modularity of configuration, maintenance simplicity and multiplicity of backup solution. The pilot-scale mining capacity is achieved by four pick-up modules of each 1m wide, which are moving forward with robot vehicle and sweep the nodules entering below the pick-up heads. Principally, by adding the pickup modules in lateral dimension the mining capacity may increase linearly. MineRo-II was designed and constructed in unit-module wise. The robot consists of two unit-modules having an identical mechanical and hydraulic configuration. Each unitmodule has two tracks, two pick-up devices with attitude control devices, two crushers, one discharge pump, and one hydraulic system. Two unit-modules are connected by one loading frame and integrated by electric-electronic system. Two thrusters for control of the

Sep 14, 2011

By Tetsuo Yamazaki

Deep-sea rare-earth element-rich mud (REE Mud) distributes in pelagic clayey sediment column on ocean seafloor at 4,000-6,000 m deep. The thickness ranges 5-80 m and the burial depth 0-100 m. The REE content ranges 600-2,250 ppm in Pacific and one of the richest, maximum 6,500ppm, has been found in Marcus Is. exclusive economic zone. By applying a conventional hydraulic excavation and lifting methods, the economy of REE Mud mining around Marcus Is. is preliminary examined. Because the waste content in REE Mud is high and the disposal cost in Japan is very expensive, the mining is recognized far away from economy.

Sep 14, 2011

By Jorge MRS Relvas

Recent research both on active and fossil systems has demonstrated that shallow subseafloor replacement processes are not only viable depositional mechanisms for massive sulfide mineralization, but likely contributed as a major component of the mineralization occurring in large VHMS deposits and in many present-day seafloor hydrothermal systems. In the giant Neves Corvo deposit, as in many others VHMS deposits of the Iberian Pyrite Belt, there is overwhelming evidence for silicate-sulfide replacement processes being largely responsible for the efficiency of the ore-forming systems and huge size of the deposits. Textural evidences at all scales, coupled with a well-constrained mass-balance geochemical analysis, indicate that extensive replacement in the lavadominated volcanic rocks of the footwall sequence, and disseminated replacement mineralization in the volcaniclastic and/or sedimentary units were major mechanisms of ore formation in the Neves Corvo deposit. Shallow metal deposition prior to fluid discharge on the seafloor is likely to play a major role in seafloor massive sulfide mineralization. This premise should be envisaged as critical in evaluating the economic potential of seafloor resources, and should certainly be part of the equation when plans for seafloor mineral exploration missions are drawn.

Sep 14, 2011

By Darryl Thorburn

The Cook Islands are 15 islands located in the Southwest Pacific (between 8-23°S latitude and 156-167°W longitude). The total land area is about 200 km2. However, because its islands are widely scattered, the EEZ of the Cooks encompass an area about 2 million km2. The Cook Islands government exercises sovereignty and jurisdiction over its EEZ according to international law and convention as a member state under UNCLOS1. Accordingly, the Cook Islands government exercises full control over resources in its EEZ, including minerals on the seabed. Decision making on allocating licences for exploration and ultimate mineral recovery is by the Cook Islands government and will be set out in relevant statutes. Seabed minerals investigations within the EEZ of the Cook Islands and adjacent waters were first carried out by, USSR, US, and New Zealand research vessels in the late 1960 early 1970?s and indicated the presence of high concentrations of manganese nodules. This early work was followed by a number of Government funded surveys in and adjacent to the Cook Islands EEZ These surveys have identified a world class resource of manganese nodules within the Cook Islands EEZ (CI EEZ), containing significant

Sep 14, 2011

By Wiebe Boomsma

This is a framework study financed by the Maritime Innovation Programme of The Netherlands and several institutions actively involved in the research of the environmental impact of deep sea mining; IHC Mining, MTI Holland, Delft University of Technology, NIOZ, IMARES, Boskalis Westminster, AllSeas and TNO. For this framework study the following mining activities have been identified to be relevant to assess the ecological impact of a deep sea mining operation: a) excavation, b) tailings return, c) vertical transport, d) vessel operations, e) ore transport and f) general operations. For this paper, only one mining activity has been selected as an example for the assessment of ecological effects. This is one of the main activities introduced by the new technology envisaged for developing deep sea mining: tailings return.

Sep 14, 2011

By Irina Melekestseva

The Cu-Zn massive sulfides from the basalt-hosted Semenov-2 hydrothermal field (13°31.13´ N, 44°59.03´ W, MAR) are enriched in Au (22?188 ppm) and Ag (127?1787 ppm) [Ivanov et al., 2008] and elevated contents (ppm) of Se (269?289), Sn (123?125), and Sb (72?75). These may indicate heterogeneous substrate rocks and possible ultramafic rocks. Based on phase analysis, 70% of the gold in the massive sulfides is free. LA-ICPMS analysis has shown that the main carrier of the invisible gold is covellite (22.51? 226.64 ppm). Covellite is also characterized by elevated contents of Se, Mo, Sn, Te, Au, Bi, As, Ag, Sb, Tl, and Pb relative to the primary sulfides.

Sep 14, 2011

By Lee Sung-rock

KIGAM (Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources) has been doing various kinds of research works in marine minerals and energy resources exploration and utilization since early 1990s in Korea. In the presentation, the authors will introduce the recent research and development activities mainly focusing on the rare earth metals of the Pacific deep seabed Mn-nodules and gas hydrates which occur from Korean deep waters. KIGAM has been participating in the polymetallic manganese nodule exploration, mining and metal-extraction project, which is modulated by KIOST (Korea Institute of Ocean Sciences and Technology, formerly KORDI). Now KIGAM puts more focus on extracting precious and rare earth metals from the Mn-nodule as well as underlying sediments. The rare earth elements (REE) from seabed mineral deposits also draw attention to those countries including Korea which are lack in natural resources. KIGAM is doing several kinds of leaching experiments using various kinds of reagents under the different experimental parameters. Extraction of rare earth metals from deep sea nodule using H2SO4 and HCl solution showed good leaching effect. As the gas hydrates are to be evaluated as a new future energy resource globally, Korean government has initiated national R/D program covering fundamental exploration survey for resources assessment in Korean deep waters and production technology development. KIGAM plays a key role in seismic exploration, resources assessment, experimental

Sep 14, 2011

By Tae-kyeong Yeu

KIOST has developed the pilot mining robot, named MineRo ?? from early-2011 to mid- 2012. The robot consists of two unit-modules having an identical mechanical structure and hydraulic system. One unit-module has two track systems, two pick-up devices, two crushers, one lifting pump and one thruster. The pick-up device is fitted on the frame of the track device. All actuators are driven hydraulically, which are manipulated by valves and the controllers. Each unit-module is equipped with one dual HPU of 250kW / 4,000V. PWM-16 (INNOVA AS) as hydraulic valve controller is adopted, which outputs PWM signals of 16 channels and can be used under pressure in oil-filled box. To measure angular velocity or displacement of hydraulic actuator, turbine-type flow-meters are adopted. The flow-meter has RF (Radio Frequency) type pulse detector, which extends the flow range by eliminating drag on the rotor. Two track motors, two crusher motors, lifting pump, one thruster can be controlled their velocities through feedback of the measured flow-rates. As well as the flow-rates, the states of the hydraulic system such as hydraulic pressures, temperatures, leakages are measured through a self-developed flow-pressure canister. In that canister, multi-channel amplifier boards are installed, through which the vast amount of data is acquired and transmitted to the main controller using serial communication.

Sep 14, 2011

By Georgy Cherkashov

Shallow-water formation of marine ferromanganese nodules as well as their deep-water analogues is found throughout the global ocean. The Baltic Sea is a key province for the shallow-water type of marine minerals. The following main distribution areas of Fe-Mn nodules have so far been discovered in the Baltic Sea: the Gulf of Bothnia, the Gulf of Riga, Central Baltic area (Gdansk- Klaipeda) and the Gulf of Finland. The last area (Gulf of Finland/Finnish Bay) is the best studied from all aspects including geological prospecting and environmental assessment.

Sep 14, 2011

By V. M. Hamza

Analysis of ground and airborne radiometric measurements in the Saquarema region (Rio de Janeiro) provides new insights into the breakdown and transport of mineral aggregates containing monazites, under sub-tropical weathering conditions. The breakdown process, accompanied by loss of low-density clay fractions in weathered materials is considered responsible for the observed patterns in relative enrichment of thorium and uranium along the migration paths of radionuclides. The characteristic features of these patterns provide clues as to the time and distance scales associated with processes of weathering and erosion. It is also possible to determine approximate locations of concentrations of accessory minerals. In this context, we advance the hypothesis that large under-water monazite deposits may be present along the offshore sand banks, in the coastal region of the state of Rio de Janeiro.

Sep 14, 2011

By Mayumy Amparo Cabrera-Ramírez

Polymetallic nodules are a widespread resource in the Pacific Ocean, particularly in the areas of Clarion-Clipperton (Cronan, 2000). The most abundant mineral phases are forme d by iron and manganese oxides, with minor elements such as nickel, copper, cobalt, molybdenum and rare earths elements (Cronan, 1977; Cronan and Moorby, 1981; Iyer and Sharma, 1990; Mangini et al. 1990; Banerjee et al. 1991). In the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ), several authors mention that there are three main mineral species of manganese oxides, which have been recognized and which are associated with different processes of formation: todorokita (Mn2+, Ca, Mg) Mn3 4+ O7. H2), vernadite dMnO and birnessite enriched in Fe and (Na, Ca) 0.5 (Mn4+, Mn3+) 2O4. 1.5 H2O. In nodules of hydrothermal origin have been found todorokite, birnessite, vernadite, goethite and pyrolusite. Although there are many oxides and hydroxides of manganese and iron in amorphous and microcrystalline phases that make up the bulk of the nodule (Frondel et al. 1960; Cronan 1977; Dymond 1981; Calvert and Piper, 1984; Aplin and Cronan, 1985; Martin and Lallier, 1993; Achurra et al. 2009), identifying specific mineral phases is difficult due to the intergrowth of different phases and associated detrital material.

Sep 14, 2011

By Carl L. Kaiser

This abstract discusses selected recent technology developments at the Deep Submergence Lab at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution aimed at fundamentally changing the nature and scope of AUV operations in the deep ocean. The Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) Sentry is described in its current configuration with discussion of emerging capabilities. Telepresence enhanced AUV operations are discussed including moving both operations and data processing personnel off the vessel. Autonomous Surface Vessel (ASV) aided AUV operations are discussed including recent experiments where an ASV provided both navigational aiding and a satellite based relay for acoustic communication of telemetery and mission redirection. New flexible communications strategies to perform intervention and manipulation tasks from an untethered vehicle are discussed. The abstract concludes with a brief discussion of industrial collaborations, including the newly launched Center for Marine Robotics.

Sep 14, 2011

The chemical composition of the nodules varies with the type of manganese minerals and the size and characteristics of their nucleus, but those who have an economic interest have the following composition: Mn 29%, Fe 6% Si 5%, Al 3%, Ni 1.4%, Cu 1.3%, Co 0.25%, Na 1.5%, Ca 1.5%, Mg 0.5%, K 0.5%, Ti 0.2 0.2% and Ba 0.2% (Morgan, 2000; ISA, 2002). The Pacific Rim is an area of abundant occurrence of polymetallic nodules (Glasby et al., 1980; Morgan, 2000). According to these authors, the Pacific sea floor of the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) is one of the most interesting areas in regard to the genesis of polymetallic nodules. Their abundance in the ocean floor is very variable, as there are places where they cover more than 70% of the ocean floor. The nodules can be found at any depth, but the highest concentrations are between 4000 and 6000m (Morgan et al., 1993). In studies conducted in the EEZ of the Mexican Pacific are those made within the project "Research on the origin, process and distribution of minerals in the Pacific ocean floor in the Exclusive Economic Zone of Mexico". Within this project Rosales (1989) conducted studies on the origin, process and distribution of polymetallic nodules, finding that a number of processes give origin to nodules, being diagenesis one of the main mechanisms of elements that contribute to the nodules. Besides hydrothermal processes that are carried near the East Pacific Rise at 21° N, inputs are contributing to the nodules metallic elements and sediments, especially in regions close to the dorsal, as a greater influence hydrogenetic processes occurs westward (Rosales and Carranza, 1990). In 1993, after cruise MIMAR II, Carranza and Rosales refer that metals such as Cu, Co, Ni, Sn, Fe, Mg, Pb, Zn and Ba may have a relationship with the East Pacific hydrothermal activity and sea currents carry these metals in solution to the Clarion-Clipperton fracture area, where there are hydrogenic metals sources (Al, Fe and Mn). As result of chemical analysis of Mn, Cu, Ni and Co, polymetallic nodules observed in part of the EEZ of Mexico are possible of potential economic interest (Rosales and Carranza, 1990, 2001; Carranza and Rosales, 2003).

Sep 14, 2011