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By Zay Jeffries

In this paper, it is proposed to outline a method for the determination of melting points of those metals and alloys having high fusion temperatures. The application of the method as used to determine the melting points of alloys of tungsten and molybdenum will be given. It will be seen from these results that tungsten and molybdenum form a completely isomorphous series. This is also verified by the accompanying photomicrographs. Tungsten and molybdenum have been found to crystallize in the same system namely, isometric, and the crystal units are cubes. These determinations were made by examining etching pits in the pure metals.

Jan 1, 1917

By H. Yoshida, B. G. Liebmann, R. E. Green

In recent years considerable work has been undertaken in order to gain an understanding of the mechanisms responsible for the generation of recrystal- lization textures in face-centered-cubic metals. Two theories have been proposed, that of oriented growth1 and that of oriented nucleation,' and several attempts have been made to check these theories directly by recrystallizing deformed single crystals.3-5 Two groups, Graham-Cahn and Liebmann-Liicke-Masing, studied the orientation of recrystallized grains and their rate of growth, both using strained aluminum single crystals of commercial purity (Graham et al., 99.6 pct, Liebmann et al., 99.8 pct). Surprisingly, the results obtained by the two groups were completely

Jan 1, 1960

By Joseph D. Weeks

NOTE BY THE SECRETARY.—This address having been made the object of much hostile comment, arising, as Mr. Weeks believed, in large part from misunderstanding of its purpose and meaning, was, by his express direction, withheld from official publication in the Transactions until he should have so modified or added to it as to make such misunderstanding impossible. His illness and death prevented him from executing this intention; and, consequently, the only version of the address now in the Secretary's hands is one of which the author had forbidden the publication. Under the circumstances, therefore, it seems best to publish, in this place, only some portions of the address and its appendixes which have a historical value and are beyond controversy, giving at the same time a summary of its general nature, based upon the original manuscript and upon correspondence with Mr. Weeks. For this summary, the Secretary is alone responsible. The address was essentially a restatement of well-known and established facts, which it interpreted as proving that, of the three elements of the Bessemer process (namely, the pneumatic principle, the successful mechanical application of that principle, and the recarburization with spiegeleisen), William Kelly was the first inventor of the first, Bessemer of the second, and Mushet of the third. Mr. Weeks used the words " original inventor " in the sense (as he explained in one place) of first inventor, and neither asserted nor believed that Bessemer's con-

Jan 1, 1897

By David H. Browne

Nickel has always been a fruitful mother of problems. Previous to the year 1906 nickel was regarded as an element replacing iron in copper-mattes, and it was believed that the same laws which governed the elimination of iron could be applied to nickel. This conception has lately undergone a complete change, and nickel in all its stages is now regarded as an element replacing copper; in other words, copper-nickel is considered not as two elements, but as one metal. When we commenced our investigations on Monel metal we made a great many experiment* on the conversion of mattes, both high copper and high nickel. We studied closely the composition of the mattes and the changes produced by the blow. We found in all cases certain agreements which me believe are due to some law. Briefly stated, our conclusions are as follows : 1. Nickel is not an element replacing iron in matte. 2. Nickel-copper alloys act in the matte-blow like one metal. 3. Nickel-copper alloys follow, during the matte-blow, exactly the same laws that govern the behavior of copper alone. This brings up the question: What are the laws governing the production of metallic copper, and what are the relations of copper to sulphur and iron during the Bessemer blow?

Jan 1, 1911

Curlisle: We're sitting in Don McLaughlin's office overlooking Sun Francisco Bay, and he's going to be good enough to talk about early days in California, maybe about his college years in Berkeley, maybe about his first jobs in mining. Now, Don, would you be good enough to start it off by saying something about George Hearst. I know he died before you were born, but you know a lot about the family, and you no doubt know a lot about him. Certainly, nobody in those days matched his record in getting hold of good mines. McLaughlin: George Hearst died, actually, in the very year that I was born, but as I more or less grew up in the home of Mrs. Phoebe Hearst, who was his widow, I heard a great deal about the mines and the people that made the great fortune she inherited and used so wisely. But I don't think I really had an appreciation of George Hearst until 1 became active in the mining world and realized how many major mines he had picked in the early days and how much he had to do with their development into successful properties. He started in the California gold fields, but it was on the Comstock that he made his first big stake out of his substantial share in the Ophir mine. I believe at that time he was on his own. Then, later, he became associated with Ben Ali Haggin and Lloyd Tevis in San Francisco, and scoured the West for them. They made a little money in Eureka, Nevada, and other places, but the first important property that he obtained for them was the famous Ontario Mine in Park City, which became one of the great silver lead producers of the Continent. Then later he acquired the Homestake.

Jan 6, 1965

By D. W. Gillmore, C. C. Wright

DEWATERING is a major problem in the preparation and utilization of fine-sized coals now being recovered in increasing amounts from colliery effluents, refuse banks, and silt ponds. Of the various methods which have, been proposed for dewatering fine coal, gravity drainage is probably the oldest and most widely used, and yet little information on this subject has been published. Consequently a laboratory investigation of gravity drainage phenomena was undertaken not only to provide basic data for predicting the drainage behavior of fine coals in cars, bunkers, basins, and silos, but also to obtain some understanding of the moisture retention properties of fine coal. Because of practical interest in the problem, a reproducible laboratory technique, which simulated plant conditions as closely as possible, was developed for the evaluation of drainage variables. The ap- paratus selected consisted of vertically-mounted lucite columns, nominally 4 to 8 ft in length and 2, 3 or 6 in. in diam; the bottom of the column was provided with a rubber stopper through which was inserted a -in. diam drainage tube; a wad of glass wool was placed on the upper part of this outlet tube to retain the coal and a plug was temporarily located at the lower end to prevent drainage during charging of the column, see Fig. 1. The most satisfactory testing procedure is as follows: 1—The fine coal, which has been thoroughly

Jan 1, 1953

By G. A. Guess

THIS investigation was started with the idea of determining whether copper-nickel mattes might not have a lower flowing temperature than copper mattes, and thus perhaps aid in accounting for the difficulty so far experienced in attempts at pyritically smelting copper-nickel ores. We have used the term flowing temperature to avoid confusion with the usual melting temperature. The idea at first was that there might be a greater viscosity range in the one matte than in the other. In the early experiments it was in our minds to determine the relative fluidity of the mattes at a given temperature. Looking to this end we tried pouring equal quantities of matte at the same temperature down an inclined graphite slab, and comparing the distances traveled. Results from such experiments were not satisfactory. We next tried pouring equal quantities at the same temperature through a drilled hole in an Acheson graphite crucible, timing the flow with a stop watch, the whole operation being carried out in the muffle. The flowing temperatures of the mattes tried in this way appeared to be about the same, and there was no marked difference in their fluidity when well fused. Oxidation gave some trouble. These experiments finally led to the adoption of the following apparatus which we thought at the time was wholly original with us, but which we have since found was described by W. McA. Johnson.' The tray used was a slab of graphite 8 in. long, 2 in. wide and ¼ in. thick. It had six holes, into each of which sat a cup of Acheson graphite. Centrally in the bottom of each cup was a vertically drilled hole 3/16 in. in diameter and ½ in. long. The mattes to be tested were put into the cups, in a solid piece. The cups were covered with inverted Battersea "A" cups. The tray was put into the muffle of a gas-fired furnace. Supports on .each end held the tray about 2 in. from the floor of the muffle. Udder

Jan 6, 1916

By G. M. Swinkels, A. Vizsolyi, E. Peters

A process is described utilizing ferric chloride leaching followed by reduction of the cupric content to cuprous by cement copper, with CuCl obtained thereafter by crystallization. The residual liquor is cemented with sponge iron to produce cement copper and a copper free ferrous chloride solution. The latter is oxidized in an autoclave with oxygen to regenerate ferric chloride and to precipitate excess iron as a granular, filterable hematite. Cuprous chloride crystals are reduced to high purity metal with hydrogen, while sulphur reports almost quantitatively in residues in the elemental form. Pyrite and molybdenite are not leached. This paper describes the important variables in the process, as well as the deportment of minor elements as silver, gold, selenium, tellurium, bismuth, nickel, lead, zinc, magnesium, etc. An elegant method of isolating silver from CuCl crystals is described, as well as recovery of gold from residues by a chloride reagent The process is described as non-polluting and capable of producing refined copper, ore grade iron oxide, elemental sulphur, and yields of minor metals as good or better than obtainable by conventional smelting, without the use of solvent extraction or electrochemistry.

Jan 1, 1981

Discussion of the paper of FRANCIS S. PEABODY, presented at the St. Louis meeting, October, 1917, and printed in Bulletin No. 125, May, 1917, pp. 775 to 781. THE CHAIRMAN (CARL SCHOLZ, Chicago, I11.).-Coal wastage is undoubtedly one of the most prominent topics before the coal operators of the United States today. Even those who have been in the business only 25 years, like myself, know that the exhaustion of coal is something that should and must, be curbed. If it is not, before long we shall discover that the great coal resources of the country are not what we-thought they were; we have been so accustomed to work at the best and thickest coal alone, that it will be difficult for us to realize one of these clays-and that (lay is not far distant-that we are no longer the rich nation in coal that we thought we. were. In this connection I feel obliged to attach a little blame to the Geological Survey for misleading the people. There are several members ,here who assisted in that work, and I am going to ask them to defend themselves. The Geological Survey deals with coal seams of much less thickness than we could now expect to, mine, particularly with the present high wages, excepting at a prohibitive cost. The Geological Survey, in its estimates, does not discriminate between thick and thin seams, but simply estimates our resources at so many hundred thousand billion tons of coal. I believe they include seams from 15 to 18 in thick, but you all know that a vein below 3.5 or 4 ft. is not considered economical to mine at this time. R. V. NORRIS, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.-Mr. Peabody has evidently been thinking almost entirely of Illinois conditions, with which I regret to say I am absolutely unfamiliar. In some West Virginia mines the total recovery at present is considerably over 90 per cent. and extraction-, as high as 97 or 98 per cent. are claimed.

Jan 1, 1918

By Leonard Larson

DURING several years immediately preceding the adoption of wet-charge smelting at McGill, various necessary conditions affecting this procedure, such as plant rearrangement and the metallurgical nature of the concentrate produced at the concentrator, were fully considered. Wet-charge smelting is not altogether novel to the recently recon-structed smelter at McGill. A number of years prior to this improve-ment, when flotation methods were initiated at the concentrator, large tonnages of wet and (at that time) sticky flotation concentrate were charged directly into the reverberatory furnaces, because of the difficulty in handling the entire tonnage in the roasters. The plant had excess reverberatory units and this surplus furnace capacity was utilized to smelt raw flotation concentrate. During the years 1927 and 1928, a number of actual operating furnace test runs were made to determine in principle the feasibility of wet-smelt-ing operation. Results were encouraging, and in November 1932 the roasting plant was shut clown. For some time thereafter the wet feed was delivered directly to the reverberatory side-charging calcine hoppers already in place. Feeding the wet material through the old calcine hoppers and charge holes into the furnace involved considerable labor, but under the conditions existing at that time it was desirable to continue wet smelting even under the handicap of this laborious procedure. The smelting plant during this period was on a curtailed production basis, operating only about 15 days per month. The alternate starting up and shutting clown of the roasting plant presented a difficult problem and charging the wet material directly to the furnace entirely eliminated this difficulty. The roasting plant was never operated thereafter.

Jan 1, 1938

By Charles Shamel

I FEAR most of the Institute members are already weary of the perennial controversy about the apex law. I feel that way about it myself now, though I have been guilty of considerable contribution to the discussion in the past. The discussion does not seem to perceptibly influence previously held views and I would not again break into print on the subject but for the urgent invitation of the Chairman of our, Law Committee. This energetic and able member has firmly determined to secure a revision of the mining law and among other things to eliminate the so-called apex provision from the U. S. mining statutes. He is, however, fair about it and has invited me to make "the strongest possible argument in its favor." I am suspicious that he is acting on the psychological principle that it is usually easier to convince an audience against a cause vigorously but unsuccessfully defended than against one wholly mute. Nevertheless, I realize that personally he wishes me no harm, much as he hates the apex law, and so am willing that the Institute have whatever benefit may accrue from my taking up again the unpopular side of the discussion. I say this because the attitude of a large part of our "articulate" membership seems irreconcilably hostile; their minds are made up; favorable consideration is foreclosed; and they become impatient and even sarcastic at any attempt to elucidate a favorable view of the apex law. The exact question for discussion at the present time is not whether on abstract, or any other considerations, the apex law is the best possible rule, but the very different proposition whether, after nearly 50 years of statutory life and much longer as a practically universal miners' custom, it is now just and expedient to repeal the apex law.

Jan 4, 1914

By Arthur S. Coffinberry, Ralph Hultgren

We have studied the gold-aluminum system by X-ray diffraction and by the microscope over the entire range of composition for temperatures between 300° and 500° C. Results obtained are shown in Fig. 1, combined with the work of Heycock and Neville1 at higher temperatures. The diagram differs in important details from that given by Hansen2 in his critical compilation of the literature of binary alloy systems. This work was undertaken both because of the intrinsic value of a knowledge of the phase diagram of this system and because of the need of theoretical metallurgy for precise and accurate data, particularly X-ray diffraction data. Systematic studies of equilibrium diagrams, particularly by Hume-Rothery,3 have shown regularities that yield a certain insight into the nature of alloying forces. It has been shown, for example, that solid solubility depends on the concentration of free electrons in the alloy, on the relative radii of solvent and solute atoms, on the forces of attraction between atoms, and on the relative stability of intermediate phases. The well-known Hume-Rothery rule states that the crystal structures and compositions of many intermediate phases depend on the electron-to-atom ratio. This has been confirmed and extended by wave mechanical calculations.4 A knowledge of the forces between atoms in alloys, even an imperfectly developed empirical one, should be a valuable guide in the preparation of technological alloys of desirable properties. Furthermore, such information is basic in such problems as rate of diffusion, age-hardening, phase transformations, and others. The most valuable data for this purpose are furnished by X-ray diffraction studies. Unfortunately, work has been

Jan 1, 1938

By A. G. H. Anderson, Eric R. Jette

A few years ago, while the writers worked on the constitution of ternary and quaternary alloys consisting mainly of iron, chromium and siliconl,2 some information on microstructures and hardness, not incorporated in the published work, alas obtained. It has not been possible to do any further work on the properties of the alloys. The information possessed is hereby presented for the interest it may have in connection with the constitution of the alloys. Microstructures Referring to the iron-chromium-silicon diagram,' the regions that received most attention were those in which the sigma phase appears. It was found that the mode of occurrence of this phase varied much with the condition under which it mas formed, and the mode influenced considerably the hardness of the alloys. In some slowly cooled alloys, well within the alpha + sigma-phase boundary, sigma occurs in pabterns suggesting a eutectic. The structure of such an alloy is shorn in Fig. 1, showing it to be partly coarsely laminated and partly globular mottled. In other annealed and slowly cooled alloys, the lanlinated structure is entirely absent, and sigma appears in an irregular distribution of sharply cornered elongated areas (Figs. 2 and 3). These areas all possess a more or less mottled structure. A carbide phase is also visible in these two photomicrographs; it is represented by bright white arras of various shapes, sometimes apparently enveloping the sigma. Quenched and aged specimens, whose compositions arc: located near the phase boundary between alpha and sigma + alpha regions, have structures not unlike martensite (Figs. 5 and 6). Fig. 4 shows the structurc of alloy No. 35 as quenched from 1100" C.; it is a typical solid solu-

Jan 1, 1938

By Earl C. Smith

Jan 1, 1935

By William C. Buell

As used in connection with open-hearth or other high-temperature operations, "insulation" refers to a multitude of substances, natural or manufactured, that have the one principal property of preventing the flow of heat by conduction to a greater degree than refractories can prevent it, the principal properties of the latter being resistance to temperature and/or chemical action. The term "control" as commonly applied to the mechanization of management functions is inappropriate without qualification, for without some degree of control of every operation we could produce no steel worthy of the name. Although grouped together in this paper, insulation and control in open-hearth furnaces have little, if any, interrelationship, therefore the paper is made up of two distinct parts. INSULATION OF OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES More than ten years ago the writer proposed the insulation of an acid open-hearth furnace system below the charging floor, and it was accomplished, with gratifying results. Possibly that was the first time the insulation of regenerators and slag pockets of any open-hearth furnace was undertaken, but shortly thereafter such insulation became general, and when the six groups of 150-ton furnaces1 were built in 1929-1930, they were completely insulated below the charging floor. While the practice was accepted at least five years ago, it was not well understood, however, as indicated by the following incident which occurred in connection with an installation made in 1929. After the

Jan 1, 1935

By Newell G. Alford

At its meeting in the fall of 1937, the Executive Committee of the Coal Division considered the growing scarcity of young engineers entering coal mining with serious intentions. This scarcity was the cause of considerable alarm and a committee consisting of C. T. Hayden, E. A. Holbrook, C. E. Lawall and L. E. Young, with the writer as chairman, was appointed to gather factual data on the current trend. A questionnaire1 was designed and mailed to the heads of the 60 mineral technology schools listed by Prof. W. B. Plank in his article in September 1937.2 Replies were received from 46 institutions, not all from heads of coal-mining courses but all from men that at one time or another have had experience with some kind of coal-mining curricula and know current student impressions. Our committee is indebted to all of these gentlemen for their cooperation. Our committee hoped by this means to quickly reach the root of the trouble and make a set of comprehensive recommendations to the Coal Division for relieving the industry immediately from the growing dearth of youth who yearn for coal-mining careers, but the condition is more serious than at first diagnosed. We must now refer the question back to the Coal Division, with the recommendation that the Division get the industry's permission for still another major operation on its frame of mind. In addition to 10-year statistics on the first pay received by graduates in coal mining and other technical work, we requested enrollment data for 20 years from all schools with either mining engineering or mineral technology curricula. Nine leading questions were also plied, as shown in the Appendix. Every one of the answers was significant and interesting. Fortunately, we encountered positive frankness that was extremely helpful.

Jan 1, 1938

By Alwyn Birchmore Cox, Ian William Wark

Different parts of the world in which mineral separation by flotation is practiced experience vastly different natural temperatures, and in some districts there is a big difference between summer and winter temperatures. It will be shown in this paper that the temperature is of considerable importance where it is desired to separate pyrite or arsenopyrite from other minerals. It is probable that some of the differences obtained in the flotation of these minerals at plants working under otherwise similar conditions are due to temperature variations. The influence of temperature on the flotation of galena, chalcopyrite and sphalerite by xanthates is less marked than its influence on pyrite flotation. Experimental Method The methods used have been described previously.l-4 In each test the clean mineral specimen was immersed in a solution prepared by adding the reagents in the following order: (1) sodium carbonate and hydrochloric acid as necessary to buffer the solution and to give approximately the pH value desired, (2) sodium cyanide, (3) copper sulphate, (4) ethyl xanthate, followed by (5) a final adjustment of pH value. After ½ hr. the mineral was tested for a xanthate film by bringing a bubble of air into apparent contact with the submerged polished surface. If true contact (spreading) was not obtained within ½ min. and after cleaning the surface by wiping with a small linen pad, it was concluded that the adsorption of a xanthate film had been prevented. Following the method already described (ref. 2), curves have been constructed such that for a solution composition corresponding to any point below the curve, contact between mineral and air is possible, whereas for a solution composition corresponding to any point above the curve, contact is impossible.

Jan 1, 1939

By Orson Cutler Shepard

The term "electrocapillary amalgamation" is used in this paper to designate amalgamation processes that depend upon electrocapillary phenomenon; i.e., the action of an electric current upon the surface tension of mercury at the contact with aqueous solutions. Electro-capillary amalgamation is selected as a name for these processes because the electrocapillary phenomenon has been found to be the effective agent in the use of sodium amalgam, as well as in the various processes using an electric current from a source outside of the amalgam. Amalgamation processes that depend upon supplying an electric current to the amalgam from an outside source, such as batteries and generators, have previously been called electrical amalgamation processes. There has been a tremendous amount of experimental work done on amalgamation processes involving the use of an electric current, as shown by the large number of patents issued on these processes: the earliest in 1885 and the latest in 1934l. Regardless of all the experimental work, the fundamental principles causing the operation of electrocapillary amalgamation processes have not been described. The explanation usually given is that an electric current keeps the amalgam bright and clean. Patent No. 328532 states: It is well known that when amalgam plates are used for collecting gold and silver from their ores the surfaces of these plates are liable to become tarnished or sickened by certain substances contained in the ores or in the current of water which is employed to carry the ore over the plates, and that in this condition they are unfitted for amalgamating the particles of gold and silver. To prevent this and to keep the surfaces of the amalgamation plates always bright and in a better condition for catching and amalgamating the particles of gold and silver I employ electricity in the following manner: . . . A similar explanation is given 49 years later, in patent No. 1953364: The sodium (Na) ions lose their charge at the cathode becoming sodium atoms, which do not react with the electrolyte, but follow the grounded electrical current through the mercury body producing in their passage sodium amalgam and liberate themselves in the amalgamation compartment when brought in contact with the fed

Jan 1, 1939

By F. M. Lewis, J.F. Myers

The Tennessee Copper Company's operations are in the Ducktown Basin, in the extreme southeast corner of Tennessee. The ore is of the heavy sulphide type, the predominating sulphides being pyrite, pyr-rhotite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite. The gangue is a micaceous schist, with varying amounts of free quartz. The mining operation develops two classes of ore, each of which is concentrated by the flotation process in separate mills. Table 1 shows a typical analysis of the ore treated in each mill. The London mill was built in 1922, with a capacity of 400 tons per day. This was gradually increased to 600 tons by 1926, to 900 tons in 1928, and to 1350 tons in 1938. Fig. 1 shows the crushing and grinding flowsheet in 1928, when the capacity was 900 tons; Fig. 2, the crushing and grinding flowsheet that was developed by 1938, for the treatment of 1350 tons per day. A comparison of these flowsheets reveals that this increase in tonnage, with a subsequent improved operation, was accomplished with identically the same major equipment. Improving a concentrator's capacity, metallurgical results, and costs as time goes by is a commonplace practice, and is accomplished in various ways, depending upon the local conditions. The reason for presenting the data of how this was accomplished in the mills of the Tennessee Copper Co. is that a fast-running rod mill plays such an interesting role

Jan 1, 1943

By T. R. Armstrong

During the year 1939, Mexican production totaled 42,479,000 bbl.; a daily average of 116,381 bbl. or a little over 2 per cent of the estimated world production. The Mexican Government operates 100 per cent of the refining branch of the industry, 100 per cent of the domestic distribution, 96 per cent of the crude production and 92 per cent of the total exports. No discussion of the Mexican petroleum industry in 1939 is adequate without reference to the "expropriation" of the foreign-owned oil properties in Mexico by executive fiat on March 18, 1938. The forcible seizing of the properties culminated a long series of efforts on the part of the Mexican Government to obtain control of the oil properties developed through foreign initiative and with foreign capital in Mexico. The heart of the issue is whether the Mexican nation or any nation may with impunity confiscate the legally acquired properties of American citizens. The Department of State of our Government has in its communications to Mexico emphasized the fact that its "expropriation" of American properties was confiscatory because Mexico had failed to make "adequate, effective and prompt compensation"; that the taking was no less confiscatory "because there may be an expressed intent to pay at some time in the future," and that, consequently, "Mexico has assumed and continues to assume to exercise a right without compliance with the condition necessary to give such exercise a recognizable status of legality." Mexico has professed its willingness to pay for the oil properties but at the same time through its Supreme Court it has declared that the owners or lessees do not have the exclusive right to extract and dispose of the oil in the subsoil. This is a reversal of the Mexican position with respect to oil as set forth in the Mexican mining laws, affirmed by Mexican Supreme Court decisions, and as clarified in the Warren-Paync and the Morrow-Calles agreements, as well as in diplomatic correspondence. Efforts to Settle the Controversy Responding to suggestions from the State Department, representatives of the principal oil companies undertook in 1939 to effect a direct

Jan 1, 1940