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By A. W. Schlechten, W. J. Kroll

As this paper is written, the only method for the commercial production of lithium metal is by the fusion electrolysis of LiC1-KC1 mixtures, as first proposed by Gunkz.2 The details of the industrial process have not been made public hut Osborg8 stated that an efficiency of more than 90 pct is obtained with a lithium metal recovery above 95 pct and that the metal is 99.5 pct pure. Pletenev9 gave a power consumption of 66 kw-hr per kilogram of lithium metal produced with a salt consumption of 9 kg of LiCl and 0.4 kg of KCI. Pletenev's figures indicate a somewhat lower recovery than that given by Osborg. In a recent report on' German lithium plants, Motock7 gives figures that are also less favorable than those reported by Osborg. At the German plants the lithium recovery in electrolysis was only 83.4 pct, with a power consumption of 140 kw-hr per kilogram of lithium. The metal averaged only 97 pct pure, with sodium and potassium as the chief impurities. The presence of SO2, SO3, SiO2, Ba, Ca, and appreciable amounts of Na and Fe2O3 were especially disturbing in the electrolysis, and it was necessary to run the cell for some time to eliminate most of these impurities and condition the bath. It may be noted here that most of these impurities do not interfere with a thermal reduction process. These facts show that the present method of producing lithium is fairly efficient and would suggest that other methods could not compete. However, fusion electrolysis has certain drawbacks, such as the necessity of supplying costly, low-voltage direct current and of collecting and processing the anodic chlorine if it is not to be wasted. An even greater disadvantage is that lithium chloride must be used for an electrolyte. It is one of the most expensive salts of lithium, since it cannot be produced in anhydrous form by precipitation from aqueous solution, as is done with LiF or Li2CO3. The reduction of lithium by a vacuum process similar to the ferrosilicon method for the production of magnesium would have certain advantages. Small units such as Pidgeon retorts, would give flexibility of production to meet demand, and a small plant would require moderate capital outlay. There is a possibility of using idle Government-owned magnesium plants for such purposes. The raw materials needed for vacuum thermal reduction would not have to be extremely pure, Director, with respect to the iron and calcium Content. This paper describes a series of experiments to determine the effectiveness of various agents for the reduction of lithium compounds. The investigation is part of a program of vacuum metallurgy con-

Jan 1, 1949

Jan 1, 1967

By J. F. Breedis

The stabilization of austenite in Fe-Ni alloys against martensitic transformation after reversion has been attributed' to the lattice imperfections remaining from previous transformation. More recently, however, such stabilization has been associatedzy3 with compositional changes which occur in martensite during slow heating. Dislocation arrangements in deformed austenitic stainless steels strongly influence transformation to martensite on quenching.4 Therefore, it is of interest to observe the transformation behavior of stainless steel after reversion, especially since previous studies have been confined to Fe-Ni alloys. The transformation-product morphology also differs in the two iron-alloy systems;6 plate martensite forms in the latter while stainless steel transforms to lath-type martensite. Samples of Fe-16 wt pct Cr-12 wt pct Ni (maximum C + N = 0.005 wt pct, 0 = 0.02 wt pct), prepared by vacuum melting and casting from high-purity components, were annealed at 900°C for 24 hr, after cold rolling to produce a 40-p grain diameter. The M, temperature of this alloy is -80°C and samples are fully austenitic after annealing. The amount of martensite present after quenching, annealing, and requenching was determined magnetically, to within 0.01 wt pct, using a vibrating specimen magnetometer. Nearly 14 pct of martensite forms during the initial quench in 1 min at -196°C. Two-min and 2-hr anneals were done in air and in evacuated quartz capsules, respectively. All specimens were electro-polished before making the magnetic measurements.

Jan 1, 1967

By Johannes Moeljono, Werner Wenzel, Heinrich Wilhelm Gudenhau

As an important mechanism for increasing production of the suction-draft-sinter process, it has been shown that gas permeability through the sinter layer plays an important role. Methods to increase production rates have been indicated and suggestions for carrying out the process have been made to improve the rate of production, reduce the fuel consumption, and at the same time obtain a uniform sinter. Laboratory experiments were conducted at the Institute for Ferrous Metallurgy of the Technical University at Aachen to illustrate these methods. Methods of Increasing Gas Penetration Through Sinter Layers The following are of fundamental importance in determining the process cycle during the sintering of iron ores: 1) Generation of maximum temperature, since its form and range determine sinter quality. 2) Propagation velocity of the temperature maximum which controls the attainable output. 3) The convective heat transfer which influences the velocity of travel of the temperature maximum.

Jan 1, 1974

By Fred D. Wright, Philip B. Bucky

FOREWORD By E. D. Gardner[$] THE present known petroleum reserves are limited, and unless important new fields are discovered the Nation will be dependent, in the not too distant future, upon imports or upon synthetic liquid fuels to supplement domestic petroleum supplies. As a national defense measure, it would appear desirable to develop a substitute source of liquid fuels within the borders of the country if new discoveries of petroleum should prove disappointing. Congress undoubtedly had this in mind when it passed the Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act (78th Congress, approved April 5, 1944). The act directed the Bureau of Mines to construct and operate demonstration plants for producing synthetic liquid fuels from coal and oil shale, and from forestry and agricultural products. As a part of this program, the Bureau of Mines has built a demonstration plant at Anvil Points, near Rifle, Colo., for retorting the oil shale, and has developed a mine to supply the plant with oil shale. At the beginning of mining operations, the physical qualities of the oil shale, which would have a bearing upon the selection of mining methods and practices for exploiting the deposits, were largely unknown. A comprehensive mining-research program has been set up to determine the best methods and practices to follow to obtain the lowest overall practicable mining cost for producing the oil shale on a large scale. Unusually low mining costs will be necessary for shale oil to be produced commercially. Consideration now is being given to exploiting a series of flat-lying beds 70 ft thick by a room-and-pillar method of three benches with the advance heading at the top. This report is one of a series giving the results obtained in research on mining problems. INTRODUCTION The structure and physical qualities of the oil shale indicate that the 70-ft interval of the oil-shale measure can be safely mined in open stopes; studies indicate that this method would be the most economical one to use.1 As labor will be a major item of expense, the largest equipment that could be operated efficiently in the workings would be required to obtain the lowest practicable mining cost. It was therefore desirable to know the maximum safe span of unsupported rooms and the size of pillars necessary to support the overburden. This paper describes the work done at the Columbia School of Mines Barodynamic Laboratory in determining the maximum safe unsupported roof spans and the minimum safe pillar dimensions for the oil-shale mine at Rifle, Colo.

Jan 1, 1947

By Martin G. Castro, Renato G. Bautista, Morton Smutz

During the last 25 years, multistage mixer-settlers have been used extensively for liquid ion exchange work. The mixer-settler has the advantage of being a compact device in which a large number of stages can be assembled in a relatively small area. They are particularly advantageous for the separation of rare earths. Most of the adjacent rare earths have separation factors which are near one, which means that a large number of stages are needed to produce a good separation. When two elements (m, n) are extracted simultaneously, the separation factor (ßm, n) is defined as: [ ] where Ym, Yn are the molarities of the respective elements in the organic phase and Xm, Xn, are their molarities in the aqueous phase at equilibrium. The industrial consumption of rare earth oxides rose to over 6800 tons in 1968, an increase of 33% over 1967.1 The increased production and demand for rare earth and lanthanum chlorides for petroleum cracking catalysts was one of the principal factors in this increased consumption of rare earths. In 1968 approximately 59% of the rare earth oxides produced were used for gasoline cracking catalysts in the form of rare earth and lanthanum chlorides. There was also an increase in the sales of lanthanum oxides for use in optical lenses and in fiber optics. The future looks good for the rare earth industry. The rare earths can be expected to be used in many new products which are being developed. Until the late 1950's tributyl phosphate (TBP) was the principal solvent used in rare earth liquid ion exchange. In 1957 Peppard3 reported the use of di (2-ethyl-hexyl) phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) as a solvent for separating the rare earths. Rare earth separation factors of up to 2.5 were obtained in nitrate and chloride systems while the maximum separation factor using the

Jan 1, 1972

By R. E. Old

Through the use of pressure and production records, formation properties and bottom-hole sample data, the performance of an oil reservoir may be studied analytically to define and evaluate the natural forces acting on and within the reservoir. Use is made of material-halance methods and the equations for natural water encroachment. to estimate reserves. Methods for calculation of pressures are given. A study of the Jones sand, Schuler field, Arkansas, has been made and is given here to illustrate the value of the methods discussed. Introduction With the decreasing rate of discovery of new oil reserves, attention is necessarily focused on the efficient development, evaluation, and production of existing reserves. From the nation's viewpoint, the necessity of conserving resources is obvious. From the operator's viewpoint, the problem is to lengthen the period of profitable operation, in an attempt to increase the return on his investment. To do this the operator must take advantage of the natural forces acting on and within the reservoir. Natural water encroachment, the nemesis of profitable operation in the past, can be and is being harnessed to produce a greater oil recovery during the stage of flowing production. Proper evaluation of water encroachment rates and a fuller under- standing of reservoir behavior dictate the appropriate production procedures. Complacency in hit and miss production is obsolete. Oil production must and will approach the efficiency of other businesses, such as manufacturing. A manufacturer will not place an article on the market until he has fully investigated the processes involved, additional investment in equipment, costs of production, and expected profits. These may be modified by actual experience at a later date, but at least he begins with an idea of expected return. It is just as logical that an oil operator should investigate these same factors during the development and the early period of production of an oil reserve. The complexity of the problems existing in oil reservoirs should not be underestimated. Conversely, they should not be regarded as insoluble. Many completely defy solution, but there are others that can be solved completely or attacked intelligently to yield approximate results. The petroleum engineer has many tools, both figuratively and literally, at his disposal. Physical data such as core analyses, electrical logs, bottom-hole sample analyses, and bottom-hole pressures are accumulated extensively. Advances in the analytics of fluid flow have kept pace with the advances in measurement of physical data. It is the purpose of this paper to show how some of these records may be analyzed to define certain phases of reservoir behavior.

Jan 1, 1943

By R. E. Old

Through the use of pressure and production records, formation properties and bottom-hole sample data, the performance of an oil reservoir may be studied analytically to define and evaluate the natural forces acting on and within the reservoir. Use is made of material-halance methods and the equations for natural water encroachment. to estimate reserves. Methods for calculation of pressures are given. A study of the Jones sand, Schuler field, Arkansas, has been made and is given here to illustrate the value of the methods discussed. Introduction With the decreasing rate of discovery of new oil reserves, attention is necessarily focused on the efficient development, evaluation, and production of existing reserves. From the nation's viewpoint, the necessity of conserving resources is obvious. From the operator's viewpoint, the problem is to lengthen the period of profitable operation, in an attempt to increase the return on his investment. To do this the operator must take advantage of the natural forces acting on and within the reservoir. Natural water encroachment, the nemesis of profitable operation in the past, can be and is being harnessed to produce a greater oil recovery during the stage of flowing production. Proper evaluation of water encroachment rates and a fuller under- standing of reservoir behavior dictate the appropriate production procedures. Complacency in hit and miss production is obsolete. Oil production must and will approach the efficiency of other businesses, such as manufacturing. A manufacturer will not place an article on the market until he has fully investigated the processes involved, additional investment in equipment, costs of production, and expected profits. These may be modified by actual experience at a later date, but at least he begins with an idea of expected return. It is just as logical that an oil operator should investigate these same factors during the development and the early period of production of an oil reserve. The complexity of the problems existing in oil reservoirs should not be underestimated. Conversely, they should not be regarded as insoluble. Many completely defy solution, but there are others that can be solved completely or attacked intelligently to yield approximate results. The petroleum engineer has many tools, both figuratively and literally, at his disposal. Physical data such as core analyses, electrical logs, bottom-hole sample analyses, and bottom-hole pressures are accumulated extensively. Advances in the analytics of fluid flow have kept pace with the advances in measurement of physical data. It is the purpose of this paper to show how some of these records may be analyzed to define certain phases of reservoir behavior.

Jan 1, 1943

By C. A. Allen

For over three years we have been endeavoring to reduce the number of fatalitics and minor accidents in Utah. The physical condition of the FIG: 1.—Number kiLlEd per million short tons of coal produced in ColoraI)o, New Mexico, utah, Wyoming, and bituminous mines of the United States 1014 to 1920. mines, concentrators, and smelters is good, yet the number of accidents,

Jan 1, 1923

By C. A. Allen

For over three years we have been endeavoring to reduce the number of fatalitics and minor accidents in Utah. The physical condition of the FIG: 1.—Number kiLlEd per million short tons of coal produced in ColoraI)o, New Mexico, utah, Wyoming, and bituminous mines of the United States 1014 to 1920. mines, concentrators, and smelters is good, yet the number of accidents,

Jan 1, 1923

By S. E. Bretherton

This title introduces the subject I wish to describe to my fellow members, very few of whom, I 'hope, have ever had as much trouble with the smelting of ore containing much zinc, either in the lead blast furnace or the matting furnace, as circumstances have forced upon me: First, for several years in Leadville, Colo., after the sulphide ores containing zinc had been developed with greater depth and were sold to the intereats with which I was connected for smelt-ing in the blast furnace for the recovery of the lead, silver, and gold; then, in New Mexico and Arizona, where the principal source of ore supply for our custom smelter was from miners who sent most of their product in the form of concentrates, which we briquetted and smelted in the blast furnace, producing a matte containing copper, silver, and gold, for which we were paid; together with some zinc and lead, which was penalized if in excess of a maximum base set by the refinery to which we sold our copper matte; last, but not least, my experience in Shasta county, Gal., where for the sake of recovering $13 per ton value in copper, silver, and gold, I have smelted ore containing as high as 40 per cent. zinc (the last 18,951 tons smelted averaged 15 3/10 per cent. zinc) which we not only lost, but which it cost us money to lose. After such an experience, and knowing that, instead of being worth only $13 per ton, such 15 per cent. zinc ore should be worth about $30, including zinc at the present market value, the question of recovering the zinc in a profitable manner from such ore became very interesting to me. During several years' time I sent samples, of from 5 to 1,200 lb. each, to be tested by the different best-known zinc-recovery plants, and experimented with several processes proposed by others for the treatment of such ore, with but little encouragement, until I

Jan 1, 1914

Executive A R LEDOUX, Chairman ARTHUR S DWIGHT CHARLES F RAND E P MATHEWSON J V W REYNDERS Membership E DEGOLYER, Chairman W Y WESTERVELT, Vice-chairman WILLIAM H BASSETT H G MOULTON C MINOT WELD Finance WALTER H ALDRIDGE, Chairman GEORGE D BARRON GALEN H CLEVENGER Library GEORGE C STONE,' Chairman JOHN H JANEWAY ALEXANDER C HUMPHREYS, ROBERT LINTON FREDERICK F SHARPLESS

Jan 1, 1923

By Willard P. Ward

The numerous direct processes which have been patented and brought before the iron-masters of the world, differ materially from that now introduced by Mr. Wilson. After a careful examination of his process, I am convinced that Mr. Wilson has succeeded in producing good blooms from iron-ore, and I think that I am able to point out theoretically the chief reasons of the success of his method. Without going deeply into the history of the metal, I may mention the well-known fact, that wrought-iron was extensively used in almost all quarters of the globe, before pig or cast-iron was ever produced. Without entering into the details of the processes by which this wrought-iron was made, it suffices for my present purpose to say that they were crude, wasteful, and expensive, so that they can IE employed to-day only in a very few localities favored with good and cheap ore, fuel, and labor. The constructiou of larger furnaces and the employment of higher temperatures led to the production of a highly carbonized, fusible metal, without any special design on the part of the manufacturers in producing it. This pig-iron, however, could be used only for a few purposes for which metallie iron was needed; but it was produced cheaply and with little loss of metal, and the attempt to decarbonize this product and bring it into a state in which it could be hammered and welded was soon successfully made. This process of decarbonizatioa, or some modification of it, has successfully held the field against all, so-called, direct processes up to the present time. Why ? Because the old-fashioned bloomeries and Catalan forges could produce blooms only at a high cost, and because the new processes introduced failed to turn out good blooms. Those produced were invariably "red-short," that is, they contained unreduced oxide of iron, which prevented the contact of the metallic particles, and rendered the welding together of these particles to form a solid bloom impossible. The process of puddling cast-iron, and transforming it by decarhonization into wrought-iron has, as everybody knows, been in successful practical operation for many years, and the direct process referred to so closely resembles this, that a short description of the theory of puddling is not out of place here.

Jan 1, 1884

Elected Died 1903 * ADAMS, CHARLES C. 1905 1884 *ADDY, MATTHEW 1896 1894 *ALLFN R B 1896 1874 *AMIOT, H 1892 1886 *AMSLER, CARL 1894 1895 *ÅNGSTROM, CARL 1901 1895 *ARMSTRONG, JOHN F 1898 1882 *ARNOLDS, HUGO 1886 1875 *ASHBURNER, CHARLES A 1889 1872 *ASIIBURNER, WILLIAM 1887 1883 *ATKINS, C M , JR 1885 1897 *AYERS, WILLIAM 1898 1885 *BABCOCK, GEO H 1893 1884 *BAILEY, EDWARD 1889 1880 *BAILEY, JACKSON 1887 1900 *BALLOU, FRANKLIN 1903 1886 *BARNES, F W 1892

Jan 1, 1910

By Sherwin F. Kelly

Twenty five years of exploration has shown that the "geophysical dollar" is worth $1780 in the Orange Free State, $1488 on the Witwatersrand, $85 in Sweden, $28,000 in the Transvaal and $3500 or more in the U.S.

Jan 6, 1951

By Helmut Thielsch

In recent years an ever increasing amount of interest has been directed toward research studying the principles and various applications of sonic and supersonic waves. Though still in their early stages of practical development, sonic vibrations are already used in the emulsifi-cation and degasification of liquids. Metals exposed to sonic or ultrasonic vibrations while solidifying show a considerable amount of grain refinement. Often sound waves are applied instead of radiography to test engineering materials for internal cracks and flaws.' In the field of pure research these waves are used in dispersion and also in coagulation of particles or liquids in gaseous or, under certain conditions, in other liquid systems. In the settling and thickening of slurries considerable time is necessary to compress the solid particles and to squeeze out the liquid to obtain as low a dilution (liquid to solid ratio) as possible. Various methods have been developed to increase the amount of coagulation of the very fine solids (colloidal or semicolloidal) and to shorten the over-all time. The addition of small amounts of electrolytes and the warming of the suspension represent merely the more important techniques. Some of the effects of supersonic vibrations have been reported previously. From preliminary studies, therefore, it was hoped that by application of sonic vibrations it would be possible to reduce the time required to thicken such materials to a specific dilution, as well as to thicken to lower ultimate dilutions than could be obtained by quiescent settling alone. By increasing the volume thickened per unit time—i.e., improving the plant efficiency— great savings in equipment and time would be obtained for industrial processes. Also, faster settling rates should result if coagulation of particles could be increased. Experiments have been conducted for a period of several months in the Allis-Chalmers laboratory to study the effect of sonic vibrations on settling of particles of different sizes and concentrations. Apparatus The sedimentation apparatus used in these experiments is illustrated in Figs. I and 2. The essential features are the stationary field coil and the movable voice coil. Both windings are placed around a solid iron core. A leather diaphragm connected to the steel frame holds the voice coil in place. A brass rod is fastened to the voice coil with a metal disk connected to the other end. This disk is sealed to the lucite cylinder with a flexible rubber diaphragm. The lucite tube is 17 in. long; its inner diameter is 2½ in. and the wall thickness is ¼ in. The tube is calibrated on the outside in 10 c.c. divisions for a total of 1000 cubic centimeters.

Jan 1, 1947

By Helmut Thielsch

In recent years an ever increasing amount of interest has been directed toward research studying the principles and various applications of sonic and supersonic waves. Though still in their early stages of practical development, sonic vibrations are already used in the emulsifi-cation and degasification of liquids. Metals exposed to sonic or ultrasonic vibrations while solidifying show a considerable amount of grain refinement. Often sound waves are applied instead of radiography to test engineering materials for internal cracks and flaws.' In the field of pure research these waves are used in dispersion and also in coagulation of particles or liquids in gaseous or, under certain conditions, in other liquid systems. In the settling and thickening of slurries considerable time is necessary to compress the solid particles and to squeeze out the liquid to obtain as low a dilution (liquid to solid ratio) as possible. Various methods have been developed to increase the amount of coagulation of the very fine solids (colloidal or semicolloidal) and to shorten the over-all time. The addition of small amounts of electrolytes and the warming of the suspension represent merely the more important techniques. Some of the effects of supersonic vibrations have been reported previously. From preliminary studies, therefore, it was hoped that by application of sonic vibrations it would be possible to reduce the time required to thicken such materials to a specific dilution, as well as to thicken to lower ultimate dilutions than could be obtained by quiescent settling alone. By increasing the volume thickened per unit time—i.e., improving the plant efficiency— great savings in equipment and time would be obtained for industrial processes. Also, faster settling rates should result if coagulation of particles could be increased. Experiments have been conducted for a period of several months in the Allis-Chalmers laboratory to study the effect of sonic vibrations on settling of particles of different sizes and concentrations. Apparatus The sedimentation apparatus used in these experiments is illustrated in Figs. I and 2. The essential features are the stationary field coil and the movable voice coil. Both windings are placed around a solid iron core. A leather diaphragm connected to the steel frame holds the voice coil in place. A brass rod is fastened to the voice coil with a metal disk connected to the other end. This disk is sealed to the lucite cylinder with a flexible rubber diaphragm. The lucite tube is 17 in. long; its inner diameter is 2½ in. and the wall thickness is ¼ in. The tube is calibrated on the outside in 10 c.c. divisions for a total of 1000 cubic centimeters.

Jan 1, 1947

By Eugene R. Rice

There are many methods for determining the meridian, but all of those in common use involve at least two separate observations, one for latitude and one for azimuth. Such observations made upon a south star at any hour are open to the objection of possible inaccuracy due to ignorance of the absolute refraction, and also to slow change in the altitude of the star when near the meridian. The method of observing a circum-polar star at elongation. besides requiring a separate observation for latitude, is open to the serious objection that clouds may obscure the star at the critical moment. Moreover, a tedious wait for the star to come to elongation is sometimes necessary. Many of us can recall 'long, cold, weary vigils, waiting for Polaris to reach elongation. For observing a circumpolar star at any hour, not only the latitude, but also the true time, must be known. This it is practically impossible to obtain, except in regions reached by the telegraph, and usually then one has to know the longitude also, in order to reduce " standard time" to " local time." The results obtained by this method, when the star is at culmination, are not very good, unless the true local time is absolutely known. The methods of obtaining the nleridian from the sun, by means of a solar attachment, or by direct observation, while good, are not absolute, by reason of refraction, change in declination of the sun, and small change in vertical angle, when the sun is near the meridian. For these two methods, latitude, time, and approximate longitude have to be known. In the method here described, only one observation is needed, and from it are computed azimuth, latitude, aud sidereal time. In other words, one call observe a circumpolar star—Polaris

Jan 1, 1911