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By John Pew

PRIOR to the development of the bulk-oil carrier, practically all transportation of oil was in barrels and in cans contained in wooden cases; the latter was known as case oil. In the year 1885, approximately two hundred million gallons of petroleum were exported from this country in barrels and about one and three-quarter millions in bulk; less than twelve years later, the shipment in barrels had decreased to nearly one and three-quarter million gallons, while the transport of bulk oil had increased to four hundred eighty-four million gallons. The first modern tanker, the "Glückauf," was built in England in 1886. Her hull, which was 300 ft. long, was divided into compartments by transverse bulk-heads, these compartments being divided by longitu-dinal center-line bulkheads extending throughout the oil spaces. There was a pump room forward of the boiler room, thus providing a cofferdam or safety space. Between the main and upper decks, a narrow trunk extended the full length of the' oil spaces, the trans-verse and longitudinal bulkheads being carried to the upper deck. This allowed for the expansion of the oil from a rise in temperature, and if the tank below the main deck was kept full, the danger of the oil moving with the roll and pitch of the vessel was considerably reduced. Spaces for the carriage of light oil were provided on each side of the vessel outboard of the expansion trunk, while water ballast was carried under the machinery compartments fore and aft. Although vessels previously had been built to carry oil next to the skin of the ship, it is claimed that the "Glückauf" was the first one constructed on the new principle outlined.

Jan 12, 1922

By Thomas M. Drown

THE means relied on to attain uniformity in Bessemer steel may be enumerated as follows I. The appearance of the flame. II. The appearance of the slag. III. The spectrum of the flame. IV. Examination of the steel itself. At present, I wish briefly to bring forward a few considerations with reference to the last two mentioned, namely, the conditions favoring the employment of the spectroscope and examination of the steel. From the amount of careful investigation which has been devoted to the examination of the Bessemer flame by the spectroscope, both on the part of scientists and practical metallurgists, one might reasonably expect some results definite and satisfactory in their nature, first, as regards the nature of the flame, and second, as to the practical value of the spectroscope as a guide in conducting the process. We find, in fact, however, that uncertainty and confusion still exist. In Germany, where this subject has received the greatest attention, it is now very generally conceded that manganese is the cause of the well-known groups of dark bands that characterize the Bessemer spectrum. Nor is it easy to see how we can avoid accepting this conclusion, when Wedding and Von Lichtenfels have produced the manganese spectrum and found it to correspond closely with that shown by the Bessemer flame. But it is evident, on a moment's reflection, as Roscoe has recently brought forward, that manganese cannot be the only cause of the Bessemer spectrum, for we notice the characteristic bands quite as

Jan 1, 1873

By William F. Blake

In September I contributed an article upon Columbite in the Black Hills of Dakota to the American Journal of Science. I had not at that time seen the paper by Professor Charles A. Schaeffer, of Cornell University, upon the occurrence of tautalite in the same region," or I would have gladly made reference to it. His analysis, proving the entire thence of columbic acid, shows that the specimen he analyzed, at least, should be called tantalite, and not columbite, if the distinction between these two closely related species is to be maintained. It is hard to say where the line is to be drawn, in such cases, between two minerals, when the specific characters and the composition are so nearly the same. If the name is to be determined by the relative amounts of tantalic and columbic acids, what shall we call the mineral when these acids are present in nearly equal quantities? Preference was given in this case to the name columbite, for the reason that the specific gravity, as ascertained by the ordinary scales at command, was nearer 6 than 7. As Professor Schaeffer had only one fragment by post, while I had an abundance from many places, it may yet be found that columbic acid predominates in some of the specimens. I therefore use the name columbite or tantalite indifferently. With this explanation I proceed to give a few observations upon the occurrence of the mineral with the tin-ore of the Black Hills. There are two localities, especially, where the mineral is found in the same dike or vein as the cassiterite: 1. at the Etta mine; 2. at the Bob Ingersoll claim. At the Etta it occurs in close association with albite and feldspar in crystals from one to four or five inches broad, and from one-quarter of an inch to three inches thick. It is not in contact with or mingled with the cassiterite, and each call be

Jan 1, 1885

By S. R. Mitchell, M. C. Fuerstenau, A. M. Gaudin

The two principal attributes of a thickener pulp are its settling rate and the ultimate pulp density of the thickened mud. Testing for evaluation of thickening attributes of a pulp has usually been done batch-wise by placing the pulp in a one-liter glass graduated cylinder and noting the position of the boundary between clear liquor and mud as a function of time. Refinements in testing have included repulping a thickened mud to various dilutions and evaluating the settling rate on these various repulped muds. This is considered to make possible an estimate of the settling rate as a function of pulp density and therefore to pinpoint the slowest settling pulp which ought to be critical from the standpoint of thickener plant design. Finally, tests are sometimes made with model-size continuous thickeners of arbitrary size. In batch tests it is generally accepted that the behavior of a pulp is described by a curve such as the one shown in Fig. 1, in which the position of the boundary between clear liquor and mud (the mudline) is plotted against time. It has also been assumed that the initial settling rate (the slope of the line segment AB) is descriptive of the pulp and independent of the size and shape of the container. Where the settling rate is slower and clearly a function of time (portion CD of the settling curve), it has been assumed that the data are not of much use because of the intrusion of compacting phenomena. The next important datum is the height, PE, which is a measure of the so-called ultimate pulp density. This quantity is assumed to be characteristic of the pulp and independent of the container.

Jan 6, 1959

Shoveling ore cost so much at Tyrone during the year 1917 that it was deemed advisable to conduct tests to see where the fault lay. These tests were in the nature of time studies and extended over a period of very nearly a year. No data were available on this work to supply a starting point, so it was necessary to begin in a very elementary way, to find out the capacity of the average Mexican laborer. To' obtain a basis for comparison, it was necessary to determine the capacity of various types and sizes of shovels, so as to know whether the 21-1b. (9.5-kg.) load was the best load underground as well as on surface. A list of essential factors influencing shoveling was also made out during the course of a short series of preliminary time studies, and the motions involved in shoveling were analyzed and subdivided for convenience in studying. The necessary forms and record sheets were also decided upon at this time. A second short series of tests was then conducted on the surface, so as to be able to estimate the negative effects of underground work on the shovelers, and to minimize, as far as possible, the need for studying obviously poor types and sizes of shovels under the difficult conditions to be encountered in the mine. The test work underground consumed by far the greater proportion of the time and was divided into three series: Shoveling directly into a chute; shoveling into a wheelbarrow and tramming to a chute; and shoveling into a car and tramming to a chute. In each series the following points were determined for various lengths of time worked: Number of shovelfuls handled per minute, effect of distance thrown on shoveling speed, amount of rest required, amount of time consumed in tramming and dumping, proportion of working day occupied in shoveling, total tonnage handled during various working periods, effect of distance on tonnage handled during the day.

Jan 2, 1919

By E. H. Tenney

A DISCUSSION of the probable future use of coal for power develop-ment involves the study of several basic factors, such as future demand for power, the quantity and availability of fuels in direct competition with coal, the price of coal, and a closely related factor-the efficiency and cost of fuel utilization. Predictions based on purely statistical analyses of past coal con-sumption have definite limitations. For example, statistics showing the relation between coal utilization and total energy consumption from all sources between the years 1890 to 1930 indicate that during that period, the energy consumption per person in the United States increased five times, while the coal consumption per person increased only twice1, and there has been an actual decrease in per capita coal consumption since 1920. Figures such as these, compiled by authentic agencies, emphasize the need for caution in attempting estimates as to the future use of coal, and, incidentally, would seem to offer little basis for optimism in the coal industry. They also suggest the value of analyzing broadly the part played in the past by the related factors of power consumption, competitive fuels, coal prices and the efficiency of utilization. Proper weight must also be given in such a study to the present status and limitations of power-plant developments, and to the question of what the coal industry itself can do to further its own interests and influence the consumption of its product.

Jan 1, 1935

By W. P. Sykes

IN an earlier paper1 the composition-temperature limits of the gamma iron phase in the iron-tungsten system were reported as approximated Fig. I.-DIAGRAM OF ALPHA-GAMMA LOOP AS DETERMINED BY MICROSTRUCTURE AND THERMAL ANALYSIS. by thermal analyses. At that time no attempt was made to develop metallographic evidence of the coexistence of two phases in the iron-rich solid solution at temperatures between 900° C. and 1400° C.

Jan 1, 1931

By Dorsey Hager

THE rapid increase of water troubles in the Mid-Continent oil fields is causing much alarm. Troubles occur at Towanda, Eldorado, Augusta, Cushing, Blackwell, and Healdton, although they had, not been acute in the Mid-Continent field until about two years ago, when the unusual conditions in the deeper oil fields were first encountered. California faced the same situation, but, thanks to aggressive measures, has largely overcome the dangers. The following analysis of water trouble may throw some light on the subject and be of assistance in solving the problems involved. WATER TROUBLES CLASSIFIED The presence of water in large quantities in oil sands has the following results: 1. Diminishes oil production. 2. Diminishes casing-head gasoline production: (a) By curtailing the gas flow. (b) By making the use of vacuum pumps unsuccessful. 3. Increases lifting costs: (a) By making it necessary to pump large quantities of water, which requires. a fast motion and long stroke (third hole). (b) By requiring the use of compressors for air lift. (c) By causing break-downs and delays due to the high speed necessary to pump water. (d) By making it necessary to treat "cut" or emulsified oil. Oil production is seriously curtailed by the presence of large quantities of water. Lease records show that wells are shut down 40 to 60 per cent. of the pumping time where serious water trouble occurs. While a small quantity of salt water may cut the paraffine and keep the oil moving, several hundred feet, or a hole full of water, effectually "kills" the oil

Jan 10, 1918

By Lee Trudick

The secondary dispersion of copper, zinc and fluorine in A horizon soils was examined in Pope and Hardin Counties, IL, by sampling 122 sites along five traverses. Four of the traverses were taken above a deeply buried manto; a fifth intersected a vein complex exposed at the bedrock surface. Plants at each site were examined and analyzed for fluorine and on one traverse for copper and zinc. The A horizon soils were also tested for lead, manganese, barium, nickel and cobalt. The total content of copper, zinc, and other heavy metals in soils was determined by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) after acid bomb dissolution. Fluorine in soils was determined by fluoride ion-specific electrode after fusion with NaOH. Several cold- leach methods were also used. The analysis of A horizon soils for copper and zinc by AAS after acid bomb dissolution is a promising geochemical tool in the search for fluorspar. The acid bomb dissolution method is simple and takes little laboratoy time; it Produces a total dissolution of the sample with relatively little loss of the elements, and 20 elements can be analyzed from the same sample. In this study, the highest copper values were 80 times the local background level of 25 ppm and anomalies of this element tended to outline the fluorspar orebody better than either zinc or fluorine. The greatest zinc value was 15 times the local background level of 100 ppm, while the highest fluorine values were approximately four times the local background level of 165ppm.

Jan 1, 1982

By Advisory Editorial Board

FOR many years there has been no book that adequately represented the present state of the art of coal preparation-an art that has been rapidly changing during the passing years, and particularly during the last ten or fifteen years. In fact, changes of preparation have been so rapid that no book could keep abreast of their progress, and even the Proceedings of the technical societies have not been able to do so. It has been the intention of this committee and of the editor to make this book as nearly up to date as possible and to make it one that would appeal primarily to operating men, while at the same time adequately showing the theory back of the many processes used. The start of the war and the increased calls upon the time of the authors selected for the various chapters have slightly dimmed the brightness of the ideal intended, but the result undoubtedly brings the practice of preparation and its literature closer together than they ever have been before. It is the hope of the committee that this book will be useful both to those whose daily work is concerned with preparation and to consumers who use the product produced at the many fine and up-to-date coal plants throughout the country, which are now producing, as they always have done, all the coal needed by this country in its greatest crisis. While the committee has exercised a general supervision over the preparation of the various chapters, all of the correspondence and edi¬torial work have been done by Prof. David R. Mitchell, and it has been his untiring interest and devotion that have made the book possible-the credit is all his. Advisory Editorial Board, B. M. Bird Cadwallader Evans, Jr. Thomas Fraser W. H. Lesser William C. Mcciilloch J. B. Morrow H. S. Salmon Raymond E. Salvati Kenneth A. Spencer H. F. Yancey Howard N. Eavenson, Chairman.

Jan 1, 1943

By James Harding

THE usual method of sampling mineral deposits is to drill holes and assay the sludge or core. Though the results thus obtained may not represent the true average value of the deposit, it is on these results that estimates of practically all large orebodies are made. In a large number of cases, the results of exploitation fall far short of the estimated value of the orebody. The standard method of making these estimates is to find the cubic contents of triangular prisms, in the apexes of which the drill holes are placed, .by multiplying the surface area by the average depth of the ore in the three drill holes and then multiplying the cubic contents by the specific gravity of the ore or rock to find the tonnage. The assay value is found by dividing the sum of the products of the depth of ore in each hole and the corresponding assay value by the sum of the depths of the ore in the three holes. As the latter part of this method is subject to many mathematical errors, it should not be depended on.. Some engineers, therefore, use a discount factor, but as this factor is either arbitrarily selected or is obtained by obscure methods, the results are no better than guesswork. The standard method is correct when the drill holes are so laid out that the triangular prisms are equilateral in cross-section. But as ore deposits cannot always be drilled into at regular intervals and because of the human factor, if many holes are drilled, triangular prisms of all degrees of angularity are produced. In such cases, it is necessary to assume that the influence of the different holes is not the same in all directions, which assumption of course is absurd.

Jan 1, 1921

By H. S. Fleming

My original intention was to give a full account of Southern furnaces, ores and cokes; but, owing to the difficulty of getting reliable information, I confine this paper to a general description of the ores used in, and immediately around, Chattanooga. Mr. L. S. Colyar, Manager of the Rising Fawn furnace, wrote me in answer to an inquiry as to what ores they were using, " Below I give you analyses of the mixture of ore we have been using for the past seven or eight years. We haven't a complete analysis of any ores, but I will give them to you as I have them. Attalla Soft Rising Fawn Hard Rising Fawn Red Ore. Red Ore. Soft Ore. Iron,.... 50.60 38.48 46.82 Silica,. .. 11.69 7.32 22.69 Phosphorus,. .. 1.06 .319 .350 This is a fair average of all the ores we get in this section." The following analyses of Birmingham soft ore were received from the Morris Mining Co., of that place. No. 1. NO. 2. No. 3. No. 4. Iron.....51.60 54.88 51.04 51.20 Silica,. .. 19.32 10.60 17.32 17.08 Alumina,....19 .88 1.18 Phosphorus,. ..129 .287 .116 .464 Mine No. 1, second vein, shows: iron, 46.40; alumina, 4.92; phosphorus,.212; silica, 19.60. Mine No. 1, by analyses obtained from the Mary Pratt Furnace CO., shows: Iron. Silica. Fine red ore,.49.00 18.38 Lump red ore,...54.42 17.10 Bottom vein,.50.00 21.38 Bottom vein,.41.24 13.52 A lot of this ore delivered in Chattanooga gave : iron, 53.32; alumina, 2.10; phosphorus,.529; silica, 18.03.

Jan 1, 1887

By S. R. B. Cooke, R. O. Huch, C. S. Chang

IN the flotation of iron ores laurylamine derivatives have been used for considerable time.1, 2' To effect satisfactory separation of the gangue, pre-dominantly silica, from the iron oxide minerals, the addition of specific depressants for the iron oxides has been found necessary. Starches and starch products have been used for this purpose.V here is, however, very little published information on the effects of these materials and other variables on this process. In some cases it has been found that prior acid scrubbing and desliming are essential," and depending upon the efficiency of the subsequent washing step, there will be accompanying changes in pH. It was the object of this investigation to test and observe the effects of the above factor as well as to examine and compare the action of various starches and starch products. Ore Preparation The ore used in this experiment was a wash-ore tailing obtained from the western Mesabi range. Microscopic examination and x-ray analysis of the ore showed it to consist of hematite, goethite, and quartz. Physical properties of the iron minerals ranged from hard and crystalline to earthy and ocherous. The quartz grains were discolored either because of iron-oxide inclusions or because of a sur-face coating of iron oxide. The ore assayed 27.52

Jan 1, 1954

Executive Committee. Louis D. HUNTOON, Chairman. ARTHUR S. DWIGHT, Vice- Chairman. E. MALTBY SHIPP, Treasurer. GEORGE F. KUNZ, HOMAS T. READ, Secretary. Woolworth Building, New York, N. Y. Meeting, May 2,1913. The Annual Meeting of the New York Section was held at the Engineering Societies Building, Friday evening. May 1913, at 8 p.m. Dr: Kunz presided. The Annual Report of the Secretary-Treasurer was read and accepted. Mr. Colvocoresses offered the following amendments to the By-Laws: ARTICLE II: First paragraph amended to read as follows: "The officers of this Section shall be. a Chairman, Vice-Chairman, Secretary, and Treasurer." In the second paragraph the word "four " to be changed to " five." ARTICLE V : The following paragraph to be inserted: ' The funds of this Section shall be received by the Treasurer, and shall be paid out only by check signed by the Treasurer, and in case of his absence or inability, the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, or the Secretary may act for the Treasurer." On motion duly seconded the amendments were adopted as read. The Nominating Committee, appointed by the Chairman, recommended the following men for officers : Chairman., Louis D. Huntoon ; Vice-Chair-man, Arthur S. Dwight; Secretary, Thomas T. Read, and Treasurer, E. Maltby Shipp. There being no other nominations, Mr. Rand moved that the Secretary be authorized to cast the vote for the members in favor of the men nominated. Motion carried. In reply to the circulars mailed regarding the summer outing the Secretary reported that 89 members approved and 9 did not approve of such an outing. The Chairman introduced Dr. M. Belowsky, of the University of Berlin, who addressed the meeting in German. Following Dr. Belowsky, the speaker of the evening, A. H. Fay; of the Bureau of Mines, discussed Metal Mine. Accidents.

Jan 6, 1913

By Henry M. Howe

This paper gives the results of an investigation of the beha vior of the argentiferous cobalt-nickel arsenides of Temiskam-ing, Ontario, in roasting, made in the metallurgical laboratories of the School of Mines of Columbia University in the City of New York. The ore was kindly given by the owners of the La Rose and Trethewey properties at Cobalt, Ontario, and Mr E. J. Hall, Tutor in Assaying in Columbia University, has helped us much. I. Object of the Investigation. The object of the investigation was to learn: 1. The temperature at which the arsenic is most rapidly expelled ; 2. The thoroughness with which it is expelled by prolonged roasting at this temperature; 3. The effect of adding charcoal (a) near the end of the roast and (b) at. the beginning of the roast. II. Nature of the ORe. The important ores mined in the Temiskaming deposits are: native silver—with small amounts of dyscrasite (Ag,Sb), ar-gentite (Ag,S), pyrargyrite (Ag,SbS,)—smaltite (CoAs,), chlo-anthite (NiAs,) and niccolite (NiAs). Mispickel (FeAsS) and cobaltite (CoAsS) also occur in smaller quantities. The average composition of the ore shipped from this district for the first six months of 1905 was: silver, from 4.1 to 4.8 per cent.; cobalt, from 6.9 to 8.2 per cent.; nickel, from 3 to 4.7 per cent.; and arsenic, from 30.9 to 34.6 per cent. The ore which we treated consists chiefly of smaltite. In our 1aboratory-work

Jan 1, 1908

By R. P. Carreker

GERMANIUM is a member of that group of ele-nents—carbon, silicon, germanium, and tin-— that are currently of particular interest because of their interesting electrical properties. Near room temperature these materials of diamond cubic crystal structure are characteristically brittle. However, there have been several recent reports that germanium is not brittle at elevated temperatures These observations may be summarized as follows: 1—Germanium single crystals were observed to creep in bending under a maximum fiber stress of 6 kg per mm&apos; (8500 psi) at 500°C and above.&apos; The creep curves were sigmoidal, with an induction period that decreased with increasing temperature. 2—Germanium crystal bars have been bent 90" about radii ten times the bar thickness at 550°C.&apos; 3—-Audible clicks were heard when l/4 in. thick crystals were bent drastically at 450" to 500°C. No microstructural evidence of mechanical twinning was observed 4—Slip lines have been observed in tensile specimens deformed at 600°C, and are coincident with (111) planes, the close-packed planes of the diamond cubic structure.] The slip direction has not been established. 5—A germanium crystal has been compressed approximately 20 pct along a <110> axis at 700°C." The results reported subsequently were obtained in exploratory experiments intended to indicate some aspects of the behavior of germanium single crystals when tested in simple tension. Specimen Preparation A single crystal bar of n-type germanium was used. It was of purity corresponding to a resistance range of 2 to 20 ohm-cm. Tensile specimens were prepared by cutting small rectangular bars

Jan 1, 1957

By E. P. Jennings

These unique copper-deposits occur on the top of the Kaibab Plateau, in Cocouino county, Arizona, and extend from the northern edge of the Grand Cañon of the Colorado river to near the Utah State line. The best-developed deposits are near Jacobs Lake, 30 miles south of the Utah line, where they are 16 ft. thick, of unknown width, and are more or less continuous for 5 miles. From Jacobs Lake to the edge of the Grand Cañon, a distance of 40 miles, outcrops of ore have been found, but no explorations have been made except those of wandering cowboys and hunters. The Kaibab Plateau, the highest of the Colorado river plateaus, is a great uplift, about 90 miles long from north to south, and from 10 to 20 miles wide from east to west. Its southern face is the Grand Cañon; its western boundary a N—S. fault plane, which separates it from the Eanab Plateau, lying 1,500 ft. below. Its eastern edge is a monocline which brings the horizontal beds of the high plateau to the level of the plateaucountry of eastern Utah. The elevation of the plateau near the Colorado river is over 8,000 ft., and about 6,000 ft. at the Utah line. Its structure, as shown by the western fault, consists of about 500 ft. of Aubrey limestones underlain by 1,000 ft. of red sandstones. The limestone is the upper member of the Carboniferous, and is overlaid by the marls and shales of the Permian, 25 miles to the north on the Kanab Plateau. At the town of Kanab, near the Utah line, the Permian strata pass under the magnificent redsandstone cliffs of the Triassic, that rise to heights of 1,000 ft. above the desert. The Grand Cañon exposes a section a mile deep at the southern end of the plateau, showing all the formations from the Archean to the top of the Carboniferous.

Jan 1, 1904

By J. P. Hammond, C. J. Sparks, C. J. McHargue

IN a study of the effects of solid solution alloying on the deformation texture of titanium, an alloy containing 3.8 pct A1 was found to develop a (0001) [1010] texture instead of the texture characteristic of pure titanium.ls2 A short investigation has been made of the change in texture with aluminum content. Alloys containing 0.27, 0.47, 1.05, and 1.43 pct A1 were prepared by vacuum arc melting, using iodide titanium as the base material. Homogenized ingots were reduced 90 pct in thickness by cold rolling. Pole figures were obtained using the usual film techniques. Fig. 1 shows that the change from the tilted to the nontilted (0001) position is gradual. The dashed contour lines in Fig. 1 indicate the extent to which data was collected. The addition of 0.27 pct A1 resulted in a decrease in the transverse spread of basal poles. With increasing aluminum content, the amount of the tilt becomes less and the region of highest intensity takes the shape of a ring about the center of the pole figure. For aluminum contents greater than 1 pct, the (0001) [1010] texture is definitely present—the sharpness increasing as the amount of solute is increased.* It is interesting to note that Williams and Eppel-sheimer9 eported for commercial grade titanium a high intensity region 20" toward the rolling direction from the rolling plane normal in addition to. one 30" toward the transverse direction. Their basal pole figure was similar to Fig. 1, row inree. The observation that the texture changes gradually with solute concentration is similar to the results of similar studies on copper." At the present time these effects are not clearly understood. Acknowledgments This work was sponsored by the Aeronautical Research Laboratory (WCRRL), Wright Air Development Center, under Contract NO. AF&apos; 33(038)-19574. The authors are grateful for the aid received and permission to publish these results.

Jan 1, 1958

By George Hunt

THE first practical treatment of wood to prevent decay was devised early in the 19th century. At that time the oaken navy of England, when the nation was fighting for its very existence, seemed doomed to annihilation by the swift ravages of decay. The acute situation inspired a desperate search for preventive measures and resulted in the development of the Burnett, Bethel and Kyan processes for impregnating wood with zinc chloride, coal-tar creosote and mercuric chloride, respectively. In the century that has elapsed, their use has spread throughout the world and the three original preservatives are used today in enormous quantities. Meanwhile, improved processes have been developed, new preservatives discovered, and the practice of impregnating wood to make it last longer has attained a position of major importance in the field of structural materials. USE OF PRESERVATIVES BY THE RAILROADS In the application of wood preservatives in the United States the railroads have been the leaders for the past 50 years or more. Having found that decay is the chief cause of the early destruction of wood and that preservative treatment is the remedy, they have treated their ties and timber in increasing amounts(1)?-in 1925 about 220;000,000 cubic feet. By preservative treatment the Santa Fe Railroad saves annually 1,500,000 ties in its 18,000 miles of track, and many other railroads effect similar savings. (2) In like manner the life of wooden bridges and trestles,(3) poles, marine piling, water tanks and other wooden railroad structures has been greatly increased, reducing the amount of timber required annually to maintain them.(5),(7)

Jan 1, 1927

By Edgar S. Cook

Portions of this paper repeat in substance the statements made by me in an address before the meeting of the American Society for Testing Materials, held in June, 1903, at Delaware Water Gap, Pa. The views I then expressed, I still hold and believe to be pertinent to the present discussion of this subject. In doing my part, therefore, at the request of our Secretary, towards the further consideration by the Institute of the Physics of Cast-lron from a commercial as well as a theoretical standpoint,—a theme which received interesting treatment in our meeting some years ago, but has been somewhat neglected recently,—I make no apology for reiterating the views I have expressed elsewhere. Indications all point to the substitution of classifying pig-iron by chemical analysis for the old-time method of grading by fracture. Commencing with the larger users, and the makers of specialties, who require more positive information as to the composition than is afforded by the fracture; the use of pig-iron, guided by analysis, has spread with much greater rapidity to all classes of foundry-work than the most sanguine expected. Grading by fracture, as guided by experience with any particular brand of iron, has some points in its favor. The fact that, for so many years, castings of multitudinous forms, and for an endless variety of uses, were made in a fairly satisfactory

Jan 1, 1905