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This report is the 24th in a series summarizing research on coal and related investigations3 by the Bureau of Mines. The coal programs of the Bureau of Mines include a wide range of theoretical and applied studies--such as fundamental studies of coal structure and properties, the development and evaluation of new mining techniques, and work toward more effective processing and utilization of coal. The scope of these programs is indicated, in topical outline, by the table of contents. These investigations are integrated into a broad but coordinated effort to develop information on coal that will benefit the coal mining industry and the coal consumer while promoting the wise conservation and utilization of our national coal resources. Any attempt to summarize in one volume the progress in all of the program areas indicated must necessarily be limited to a brief review of developments, without detailed reporting of the data. However, while the brief discussion in each section will present only the highlights of the Bureau's work during the year, details of many of the operations or investigations described here can be found in the publications cited throughout the text. Other work, reported here for the first time, will be covered in greater detail in later publications.

Jan 1, 1962

By W. W. Adams

Coal mining in the United States, had a somewhat higher death rate per million man-hours of exposure among the employees in 1937 than in 1933 to 1936. However, the rate in 1937 was lower and therefore more favorable than that in any year since 1921 but previous to 1933. The nonfatal injury record, which began in 1930, was lower and therefore better in 1937 than in any other year since 1930. Separate figures covering bituminous-coal mines in all States showed a lower fatality rate in 1937 than in any year since 1920 but before 1933, and a lower nonfatal injury rate than that of any year since 1930 except 1933 and 1936. Reports for anthracite mines in Pennsylvania revealed a better safety record for fatal accidents in 1937 than in any year since 1930 except 1933, 1934, and 1936 and a better record for nonfatal injuries than in any year since 1930 except 1933.

Jan 1, 1940

By Edward L. Tullis

Numerous widely distributed pegmatites of the southern Black Hills of South Dakota contain small amounts of beryl, and two minor deposits are known in the northern Black Hills. Few mines have produced more than 50 tons, and the current, rate of production for the area is about 100 tons annually. Total production, since the first records, is 2,358 tons. Most of the deposits contain less than 1 percent beryl, although the beryl zones in several deposits contain 2 percent beryl or more. Estimated reserves of beryl total 11,824 tons, and an additional 234 tons has been measured; there are other unestimated reserves. The pegmatites are in a belt about the margin of the Harney Peak batholith in the southern Black Hills, although they fail into three districts. The most important, from the point of view of production and reserves, is the Keystone district. Many deposits also are found in the vicinity of Custer and Pringle. Small amounts of beryl occur in the dikes near Hill City. A little beryl has been produced from the Tinton district in the northern Black Hills, and an undeveloped dike has been discovered on Whitewood Peak near Deadwood. The beryl-bearing pegmatites are principally coarse-grained intergrowths or massive segregations of feldspar, quartz, and mica. Some of them contain notable amounts of lithium minerals, as well as some tantalite, columbite, and cassiterite.

Jan 1, 1952

By Deborah A. Kramer

This Bureau of Mines report presents a cost estimate of the Bayer process, which is used for virtually all cell-grade alumina production. The report will serve as a reference point to determine the economic merits of processes that have evolved from Bureau of Mines investigations on technology for producing alumina from domestic nonbauxitic raw materials. The Bayer process involves dissolving the alumina present in bauxite in a caustic solution at high temperature and pressure. After the un- dissolved impurities are removed, the solution is seeded to produce an alumina trihydrate precipitate. This precipitate is filtered, washed, and calcined to produce the cell-grade alumina product. This cost estimate is for a plant producing 1 million tons of alumina per year. The estimated operating cost is approximately $250 per ton of alumina.

Jan 1, 1983

By John C. Machisak

THIS CHAPTER of the Minerals Yearbook (Volume III) contains overall injury experience for coal mines, both anthracite and bituminous, coke plants, petroleum and natural gas, peat, and asphalt and related bitumens (native); metal mines, their metallurgical plants, including ore-dressing plants and primary nonferrous reduction plants and refineries; nonmetal mines; nonmetal mills; sand and gravel operations; slag (iron blast-furnace) plaints; and stone quarries and their related pants. Volume I of the yearbook contains a chapter showing injury experience and employment data treated separately by metal mines, nonmetal mines, quarries and their related plants, metallurgical plants (ore-dressing plants and primary nonferrous reduction plants and refineries are shown separately), nonmetal mills, sand and gravel plants, and iron blast-furnace slag plants. Volume II contains injury and employment experience in the fuel industries (coal, coke, petroleum and natural gas, asphalt and related bitumens (native), and peat. Injury and employment data are submitted voluntarily for the mineral operations through an industry canvass made by the Bureau of Mines, except for the coal industry, whose reports are mandatory. Information published in this chapter is the result of this canvass. Figures presented in this chapter for 1961 are preliminary except for anthracite, peat, coke, petroleum and natural gas, asphalt and related bitumens, and slag. These preliminary data, with the exception of bituminous coal, are a summation of reports received by May 31, 1962, from the operators showing their injury and employment experience. Estimations of injury and employment experience are not included in these preliminary data.

Jan 1, 1962

By G. S. Scott

In the course of the investigation into the causes, behavior, and control of mine fires, which the Bureau of Mines is now conducting, some attention was given to the subject of spontaneous heating. It is self-evident that the temperature of a pile of broken coal will rice if the rate of generation of heat exceeds the rate of brat dissipation and will fall if the opposite is the case. Factors that affect the rate of generation of heat are:

Jan 1, 1941

By Christopher Mark

Perhaps the most significant development in coal mine ground control during the last century was the introduction of roof bolting during the late 1940’s and 1950’s. From an engineering standpoint, roof bolts are inherently more effective than the wood timbers they replaced. Roof bolts promised to dramatically reduce the number of roof fall accidents, which then claimed hundreds of lives each year, and they were initially hailed as “one of the great social advances of our time.” Roof bolting also emerged at a time of rapid technologic transformation of the coal industry, and greatly accelerated the transition to trackless, rubber-tired face haulage. The U.S. Bureau of Mines quickly became the new roof support’s strongest advocate. Some state agencies and miners were skeptical at first, but nearly everyone was soon won over. Case histories were reported showing that roof falls could be largely eliminated while productivity increased dramatically. Little wonder that, in the words of one contemporary observer, “roof bolting has been adopted more rapidly than any other new technology in the history of coal mine mechanization.” Yet by the end of the 1950’s, it was clear that roof fall fatality incidence rates had actually increased. It would be another decade before the superior ground support provided by roof bolts would clearly save lives. The story of how roof bolting was implemented by the mining industry, but took so long to live up to its promise, is a fascinating example of the interaction between economics, technology, regulation, and science. It still has important lessons for today.

By Robert H. Peters

This report presents a literature review conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The review summarizes what has been learned from the large volume of empirical studies on the effectiveness of eight types of interventions intended to increase organizational effectiveness via in the management of human resources. The interventions concern the following: recruitment, selection, training, objective feedback, goal setting, reward systems, participative management practices and organization development. Although many of these interventions appear to have the potential for improving the safety and efficiency of mining operations, it does not appear that they are being widely used. Examples are given of the successful use of a few of these interventions at mining operations. An analysis of the relationship between coal mine productivity and safety is also presented. This analysis generally supports the view that good safety performance and high productivity are NOT incompatible goals. In fact, safe mines also tend to be more productive and vice versa.

Jan 1, 1992

By Larry A. Haas

The U.S. Bureau of Mines is investigating ways of enhancing the high-temperature softening-melting (HTSM) properties of domestic taconite pellets. These properties, which are important for determining the performance of pellets in blast furnaces, include pellet bed contraction, pressure drop, S-value (area under the pressure-temperature curve), and softening and metal-slag drainout temperatures. Experiments showed that HTSM properties were related to the physiochemical properties (fired strengths and reducibilities) of pellets containing different levels of limestone and dolomite flux. Flux additions resulted in slightly lower green and fired pellet strengths, but improved metallurgical properties, such as reducibility. The influence of reduction conditions on HTSM properties was evaluated by varying the pellet metallization starting temperature and the carbon monoxide content of the CO-N2 gas mixture. HTSM property change was more sensitive to flux addition levels when metallization was initiated at 1,100° C with 20 pct CO in the gas stream. The S-value and the metal-slag drainout temperature were found to be the best criteria for characterizing HTSM properties. The optimum flux addition level was about 8 pct (4 pct dolomite, 4 pct limestone) or a basicity of about 1. At higher flux levels, a higher metal-slag drainout temperature was obtained.

Jan 1, 2010

By J. W. Jensen

EXTENSIVE research and development was performed on the manganese-copper vibration-damping alloys to determine the relationship between the properties of the alloys and variations in composition, fabrication, Mid heat treatment. Mn-Cu alloys with unusually high specific damping capacity, 20 to 25 percent at a stress of 5,000 psi, have also the following useful properties: Tensile strength, 90,000 to 110,000 psi; yield strong, 60,000 to psi; elongation, 20 to 25 percent; hardness, 90 Rockwell B; and fatigue limit at, 28,000 to 30,000 psi. Both standard and special methods of testing were employed to obtain data on strength, modulus, hardness, resistivity, dilatation, micro-structure, crystal lattice, and damping capacity. The extensive tabular and graphical data on these properties are presented for alloys containing 50 to 85 percent as quenched d solution) and after various aging treatments. Expansion coefficients for all Mn-Cu solid solutions are graphed and a dilatometer study of contraction during aging is reported. Although high damping capacity is associated with aging to precipitate a-Mn from solid solution, with a cubic-tetragonal transformation and with the occurrence of antiferromagnetic ordering in Mn-Cu alloys, a tenable theory of the damping mechanism has not been reached.

Jan 1, 1965

By William A. Beck

"INTRODUCTION Mica is found in Georgia from the Fall Line in the central part of the State to the Valley and Ridge Province in the northwest. During the past 3 years, Georgia has been one of the chief producers of dielectric mica in the United States. Since January 1945, when prices were reduced, mining has decreased until practically no sheet mica is being recovered at present.The main mica-bearing regions in the State may be classified into three districts: The Thomaston district comprising Upson, Lamar, and Monroe Counties; the Ball Ground district, comprising Cherokee and Pickens Counties; and the Hartwell district, comprising Hart and Elbert Counties. There are numerous mines and prospects in all of these districts. All have been visited from time to time by engineers of the Bureau of Mines and by members of the Federal Geological Survey. The Federal Survey has made detailed maps and reports on all of the most important ones.This report will deal with five of these properties on which the Bureau of Mines has diamond-drilled.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSIn its program of investigation of mineral deposits, the Bureau of Mines has as its primary objective the more effective utilization of our mineral resources to the end that they make the greatest possible contribution to national security and economy. It is the policy of the Bureau to publish the facts developed by each project as soon as practicable after its conclusion. The Mining Division, I. B. Moon, chief, conducts preliminary examinations, does the actual investigative work, and prepares the final report. The Metallurgical Division, O. C. Ralston, chief, analyzes samples and makes beneficiation tests."

Apr 1, 1948

By Staff

A major emphasis of the U.S. Bureau of Mines is to perform research on the prevention of fatal accidents at mining operations. The leading cause of fatalities in the underground coal mining industry is groundfalls. This proceedings volume presents several new developments that are helping to prevent fatalities and reduce injuries by groundfalls. The papers focus on the problem from two different perspectives. About half of the papers present information and techniques that can be used to train and motivate miners to protect themselves from groundfalls. The other papers explain how to identify and respond to various geologic conditions that affect the stability of the mine roof. Of the 95 groundfall fatalities that occurred during 1986-90, 75% took place in Kentucky, West Virginia, and Virginia. The rate of groundfall fatalities was much higher at small mines. During 1986-90, the rate of groundfall fatalities at mines employing fewer than 20 people was 4.3 times higher than the rate for larger mines. Because so many groundfall fatalities are occurring at relatively small mines in the southern Appalachian coalfields, many of the papers focus specifically on the needs of this category of mine operations.

Jan 1, 1992

By Oliver C. Ralston, and others

"INTRODUCTION Investigations of the Nonmetals Division are now conducted at College Park, Md.; Tuscaloosa. Ala.; Seattle, Wash.; and. Norris, Tenn. The last of these was acquired, this year by arrangement with the Tennessee Valley Authority and is engaged in electrothermel research, using power generated by the T.V.A. and. raw materials from that region. In general, the work of the division is concerned with dressing nonmetallic minerals end utilizing the products there-from. Coal, salts, and waters are investigated, and the suitability of apparatus and equipment is studied.As the Metallurgical. Division of the Bureau of Mines makes routine tests of certain nonmetallic ores under prescribed conditions for the public if they are of general interest, the published reports of that division should be read and thus, with the reports of tile Nonmetals Division, the whole field may be covered."

Oct 1, 1939

By Alla D. Mah

The need for more and better basic thermodynamic data for the oxides of many of the rare metals is evident to anyone who attempts thermodynamic calculations involving these substances. In continuation of a Bureau of Mines program to meet this need, this paper reports new experimental values of the heats of formation at 298.15° K. of the hexagonal crystalline variety of germanium dioxide and germanium dioxide glass. The values were obtained by means of combustion calorimetry and sodium hydroxide-solution calorimetry. The calorimetric results also made possible the derivation of values for the heat and entropy of fusion of hexagonal germanium dioxide at its melting point. The newly measured data were combined with previously known entropy and high-temperature heat content values to obtain heats and free energies of formation of germanium dioxide (in the hexagonal crystalline, glassy, and liquid states) over the temperature range from 298.15° to 2,000° K.

Jan 1, 1962

By J. C. Kerkering, S. M. Miller, P. C. McWilliams

Researchers at the U.S. Bureau of Mines investigated the use of close-range photogrammetry and subsequent stereo digitizing to obtain data from rock fracture roughness profiles. The photogrammetric process yielded results that were acceptable but somewhat inferior to those obtained by a mechanical profilometer. On the basis of this study, further pursuit of photogrammetry as a data collection method in mining is proposed. Fractal geometry was investigated as a means of measuring the roughness of rock fracture profiles. Four fractal algorithms were used: divider method, modified divider method, box method, and spectral method. A comparison of the methods gave ambiguous results. Brown's modified divider method provided the best means of obtaining the fractal dimension. Shear strength estimates were obtained using the parameters of the modified divider method and Myers' Z, measure. Because of differences in results when comparing the different ways of obtaining the fractal dimension, future users of fractals in studies of rock fractures are advised to cross-check their results carefully.

Jan 1, 1993

By D. G. Willard

The U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines has evaluated the potential resource and annual availability of cobalt from 27 deposits or districts in 11 market-economy countries. More than 95 pct of primary cobalt production from market-economy countries, mainly byproduct output from copper and nickel operations, was analyzed. Approximately 1,200,000 mt of cobalt is potentially recoverable at the demonstrated resource level. Very large additional resources exist, especially in laterite deposits, but are at the inferred level. The producing operations evaluated in this study are expected to produce about 19,000 mt of cobalt in 1989, significantly less than the available capacity of about 31,000 mt. More than 14,000 mt per year of cobalt is produced from copper-cobalt deposits in Zaire and Zambia, of which 11,000 mt can be produced at a copper price of $O.60jlb or less with a O-pct discounted cash-flow rate of return (DCFROR). Approximately 4,400 mt of cobalt is produced annually from nickel-cobalt deposits in six countries, of which about 1,800 mt (in Canada and Brazil) could be produced at a nickel price of $1.50jlb or less at a D-pct DCFROR. Approximately 200 mt per year of cobalt is produced from a cobalt mine in Morocco. Most of the evaluated nonproducing operations and prospects that could potentially produce cobalt as a principal product or byproduct would require a total cost (including a 15 pct-DCFROR) significantly exceeding January, 1989 market prices of the principal commodities. Principal-commodity dependence, transportation routes, cobalt toxicity, and other issues that could affect the availability of cobalt are addressed herein.

Jan 1, 1991

THE Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act. (30 U.S.C., 321-325, and amendments) became law April 5, 1944, and a period of intensive research and development in this field was begun by the Bureau of Mines. As part of this program, bulletins were published on pressure hydrogenation.3 the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis,4 anal oil shale.5 The Bureau also has published a short bibliography on coal gasification,6 mostly of a theoretical nature. Because coal gasification is prerequisite to either the Fischer-Tropsch or coal-hydrogenation processes, publishing this sizable collection of technical information in this form will be valuable. The material will be presented in three parts, as follows: I. United States Patents. II. United Kingdom Patents. III. Other Foreign Patents. The domestic patents for this bulletin were collected between 1953 and 1955.

Jan 1, 1960

By Almon F. Robertson

This report is one of a series based upon investigations made and being made within the Missouri River Basin in Montana by engineers of the Bureau of Mines , Albany Branch , Mining Division . These investigations are being made primarily to provide preliminary information to the Department of Interior agencies and to others concerned with planning the proposed Federal power developments within the Missouri River Basin. This report has been designed to permit public distribution of the factual data obtained . Virtually all known metallic -mineral occurrences and some nonmetallic mineral deposits within Fergus County were investigated in 1948. The investigations cannot be considered complete , however , because some long inactive mines or prospects may have been missed . Most of the old mine and prospect openings now are caved ; many are completely inaccessible . Many of the claims located years ago have been abandoned ; others have been relocated under different names and ownerships . Because of such conditions , much of the information regarding their development and operation necessarily has been obtained from available Federal and State publications , supplemented by information provided by owners and local residents .

Jan 1, 1950

By Charles E. Semler

The possible utility of selected compositions in the systems SrO-ZrO2-MgO and SrO-ZrO2-Dolomite for commercial refractory products was confirmed in this study. Specifically the compositions of interest are located in the sub-systems SrZrO3-ZrO2-MgO and SrZrO3-ZrO2-Dolomite. Both sub-systems have regions that are not affected by hydration, but the sub-system SrZrO3-ZrO2-MgO has a larger candidate compositional region. Solid state phase relations were determined for the subject systems over the temperature range 1600°C to 1300°C, with compatibility diagrams presented for each. The systems appear to show good refractory character with no apparent low melting compositions. As the compositions of commercial interest lie mostly in the higher ZrO2 portion of each system, information is presented regarding the firing treatment required to develop stabilized cubic ZrO2. A list of suggestions for further study of these systems, to further delineate the characteristics required for possible commercial utilization, is presented.

Jan 1, 1982

By J. S. Dunning

Recent developments in energy conversion, mining and minerals processing, pollution control, and chemical equipment have placed in-creased demands on heat-resistant alloys. Higher corrosion rates from oxidation, hot corrosion, and sulfidation have increased consumption of materials that contain critical and strategic minerals and in many cases have limited productivity. The Bureau of Mines is conducting re-search on substitute materials having greater resistance to high-temperature corrosive atmospheres above 6000 C compared to austenitic stainless steels such as AISI 304, 316, and 310, with the goal of conserving critical metals such as Cr and Ni. The substitute materials are based on Fe-Cr-Ni-Al compositions. Aluminum additions to Fe-Cr-Ni alloys significantly improve high-temperature corrosion resistance, particularly sulfidation resistance. In the alloy, devised by Bureau researchers, aluminum additions are held in the form of a second-phase precipitate, 8NiAl. Minor additions of Ti, Mn, and Si improve workability.

Jan 1, 1984