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By Albert A. Munsch

The Munsch National First-Aid Instructors Association had its inception during the teaching of a Federal Bureau of Mines first-aid instructors' class at McPherson, Kans., under a cooperative plan of first-aid training. Upon completion of- the course on July 1, 1938 members of the class organized the charter chapter of the association under the name of McPherson (Kans.) District Charter Chapter No. 1. On July 1, 1941, 3 years after the founding of the association, there were 15 chapters in the national council -7 in Kansas, 3 in Oklahoma, 2 in Texas, 2 in New Mexico, and 1 in Arkansas. Although the pioneer work of the association was done in the petroleum industry, the plan will be of even greater benefit to a district in which there are various types of plants, mince, and operations of the mineral and allied industries. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer appreciates the cooperation and assistance of the following persons: S. P. Redfearn, safety engineer, Globe Oil & Refining Co. and affiliated companies, Wichita, Kans., and H. (Chief) Moore supervisor of safety meetings, Shell Oil Co., Inc., McPherson, Kans., for their untiring efforts and enthusiasm in organizing an- attending the first class, organizing three other classes, and helping to plan the work of the association

Jan 1, 1942

By Bill Linville

During fiscal years 1967-68, the Bureau of Mines produced 185 technical papers and reports about petroleum and oil-shale research, which were published either by the Bureau or by others as referable scientific literature. Numerous other reports were prepared for Government agencies, State agencies, and organizations of the petroleum and natural gas industry engaged in cooperative research programs with the Bureau. Research performed during the reporting period by the Bureau on petroleum, natural gas, and oil shale was classified by 71 active projects. A basic appropriation of $3,575,000 was supplemented by $1,300,000 in fiscal year 1967, and that of $4,043,000 by $1,402,000 in fiscal year 1968, making the appropriated-to-supplemental fund ratios about 2.8 to 1 for fiscal year 1967 and 2.9 to 1 for fiscal year 1968. In fulfillment of the mission of the Bureau, through planned research programs, methods for producing and utilizing petroleum were improved. The continued conservation of this natural resource of petroleum, including crude oil, natural gas, and oil shale, was pursued through research performed by some 350 personnel at two petroleum research centers and two petroleum research laboratories supervised and supported by administrative personnel of the Bureau and the Department of the Interior.

Jan 1, 1970

By V. E. Homme

Low- and high-temperature reduction techniques were employed by the Bureau of Mines in study of conditions favorable to the formation of massive titanium crystals. '1,1,2 low-temperature method, feeding molten sodium to solidified titanium lower chloride-sodium chloride, produced higher quality and high quantity crystalline metal. The percentage of crystalline titanium was increased with increasing reactor diameter, melt depth, and titanium dichloride concentration. The high-temperature technique, feed molten sodium to melts above 8000 C, producing needle-type crystals of lower quality and with less consistent results than the low-temperature method. Layers of titanium foil, sponge, fine needles, wool, and crusts of sin-tered granules were formed during the earl, -art of the low-temperature reduction, and massive crystals were produced beneath this barrier in the latter part of the reduction. Crystalline titanium having an average hardness of Bhn 76 and representing 58 percent of the total titanium was obtained. Lamellar crystals up to 1 1/2 inches long with a hardness as low as Bhn 54 were also produced. A second-stage reduction for reclaiming titanium from offgrade sponge is described. Titanium produced by this method was comparable in quality to that from sodium reduction of titanium tetrachloride.

Jan 1, 1966

By Donald J. Barnes

The Glacier View RARE Ii further planning area contains no identified mineral deposits, other than stone, which cannot compete favorably with similar deposits closer to major markets. Pierce County mining claim records show six coal claims were located in the study area between 190b and 1907; however, no coal was found at the described locations. Two coal prospects, the H.O. Lamming and Floyd Rice, are within 0.5 mi (0.8 km) of the area's west boundary (fig. 1). At these prospects, impure bituminous coal beds strike approximately north and dip east toward the study area. Analyses of samples 1/ indicated an average heating value of 2,767 BTU 2/ per pound (6,436 joules per kg). Because of the low heat value, this coal is subeconomic. Intense folding and faulting which disrupted the beds would limit the use of conventional coal mining equipment, making future economic development even less likely. Trinity Resources of Houston, Texas has leased approximately 1,404 acres (568 ha) inside the study area and an additional 1,020 acres (413 ha) adjacent to the study area for oil and gas exploration. However, no oil or gas wells are known to have been drilled in or around the study area.

Jan 1, 1983

By G. R. Hopkins

[Apparent progress in economy at petroleum refineries, as measured by the average amount of hest units required to refine a barrel or crude oil, received a set-back in 1938, when the average rose to 567,000 B. t. u., compared with 562,000 B. t. u. in 1937 (see fig. 1). The primary factor in the rise in average heat requirement's per barrel of crude oil refined in 1938 was the decline in total runs to Invariably the average requirement increases when crude inn to stills decline, and vice versa. In other words, annual gains in fuel efficiency at refineries are masked by the degree to which the capacity is utilized. Additional crude runs give lower average heat requirements in two grays first, because they are mane with the expenditure of cc-comparatively small amounts s of auxiliary heat, and, second, because additional runs generally represent simple topping operations. In 1938 crude runs to stills declined 1.6 percent (from 1,183,440,000 barrels in 1937 to 1,165,015,000 barrels in 1938), but the total heat consumption declined only 0.4 percent, or from. 663,866 billion B. t. u. in 1777 to 660, 56 billion in 1938.]

Jan 1, 1939

By Neil B. Young

Carbonate minerals constitute a major fraction of the oil shale in Colorado's Green River Formation. Quantification of carbonate minerals is important for the characterization of oil shale, particularly because of their thermal activity in production of oil from shale. The carbonate minerals found in this oil shale are nahcolite (NaHCO3), dawsonite [NaA1(OH)2CO3], dolomite [(Mg1-xFx)Ca(CO3)2], calcite (CaCO3), and ferroan [(Mg1-xFex)CO3]. Although carbonate minerals can be removed by acid extraction from the balance of the oil shale, direct determination of carbonate minerals is complicated by the occurrence of the same cations in more than one mineral. A method for assigning the acid-soluble cations to the individual carbonate minerals was developed from two assumptions based on oil shale geochemistry: (1) Calcite and ferroan do not occur together, and (2) the ratio of iron and magnesium is the same in dolomite and ferroan. These assumptions were tested by the Bureau of Mines by applying the technique for assigning cations to 219 samples from the saline section of the formation. The reported carbonate mineral amounts were compared statistically with X-ray diffraction peak heights, verifying the cation assignment method.

Jan 1, 1975

By J. C. Nigro

Hematite-to-magnetite reduction kinetics were investigated mainly in CO-CO2 atmospheres at temperatures ranging from 500° to 1,000° C. Reduction rates were measured with a thermobalance, which recorded the weight loss as the specimen was reduced. Reduction data on both synthetic and natural hematite spheres showed good linearity of ro [1-(1-R)1/3] with time, t, up to over 85 pct conversion to magnetite; the rate coefficient (k[L], cm/min) obtained from the linear portion of the plot was used to characterize the penetration rate of the hematite-magnetite interface. Gas composition, porosity, and silica content were major factors affecting the rate. Temperature dependency of the reaction rate was small, yielding a mean activation energy of about 3 kcal/mole. Silica additions increased the reaction rate, probably through an increase in the effective surface area and diffusion; however, above 900° C, silica can react to form fayalite. Experimental data showed that the linear thickening rate of the magnetite layer, normally evidence of a chemically controlled reaction, can also be indicative of a reaction controlled by both mass transfer and diffusion. Evidence from this study indicates that the dominant rate-controlling factor in the reduction of hematite to magnetite at high temperatures is transport in the gas phase.

Jan 1, 1973

By G. R. Hopkins

According to the annual refinery-capacity survey of the Bureau of Mines, the number of refineries in the United States showed little change in 1940, increasing from 057 the first of the year to 562 at the close. Although a number of plants were dismantled in Texas and other States, more than compensating gains were made in California, Illinois, and other States. Low gasoline prices, competition for crude-oil supplies, particularly in Illinois, and the termination of a favorable distributing arrangement for independent plants in the Los Angeles area, forced about 50 refineries to close down in 1940. The number of operating plants accordingly declined from 461 on January 1, 1940 to 420 on January 1, 1941 and the number of idle plants increased from 86 to 136 in the same period. These developments were also reflected in the capacity data, the operating capacity declining from 4,196,694 barrels daily on January 1, 1940 to 4,180,588 daily on January I, 1941 and the idle capacity rising from 431,952 barrels to 53g8381 barrels in the same period. However, the completed capacity on January 1, 1941 (4,718,969 barrels daily) was 2 percent above the previous year.

Jan 1, 1941

By Louis C. Brichta

The Kline tract ?3.nd the Frey tract are two separate properties situated in the Wentworth district on the easterly edge of the Tri-State zinc-lead region (fig. 1). The Kline tract is in the southwestern corner of Lawrence County, Mo., and the Frey tract, 1 1/2 miles west of the Kline, is in the northeastern part of Newton County, Mo. A bureau Of Mines drilling project embraced work on both properties, but the amount of work done on the Frey tract was comparatively small. At the time of the project the Kline tract was under lease to the Wentworth Mining & Milling Co. The Surprise Mining Co. held the lease on the Frey tract. Underground workings on the generally flat-bedded are deposits of the Kline property-covered an area of-about 15 acres. No total metal-production records are available. In 1942-1943 the mine, operated by the Wentworth Mining & Milling Co., produced at an average monthly rate of 83 tons of 60-percent zinc concentrate derived from mining and milling 1,700 to 2,100 tons of ore. At the end of that period no significant amount of reserve ore was in sight. The gravity-flotation mill on the property was operating at about one-sixth capacity.

Jan 1, 1949

By D. L. Bickel

This report presents a Bureau of Mines study intended to determine if horizontal stress trends exist and if the stresses can be projected for improved mine design in a selected coalfield. The horizontal stresses were determined in three mines in the Yampa Coalfield and one mine in the adjacent Danforth Hills Coalfield of northwestern Colorado. Stresses were determined from stress-relief measurements using a three-component borehole deformation gauge and overcoring techniques developed by the Bureau. A least-squares method of calculating the average rock stress components in the horizontal plane was performed. Physical properties of the rock from the test sites are also included. For the Yampa Coalfield, the maximum horizontal compressive stress in the floor ranged from 363 to 1,956 psi, and the maximum horizontal compressive stress in the roof ranged from 235 to 875 psi. For the Dan-forth Hills Coalfield, the maximum horizontal compressive stress in the floor ranged from 360 to 1,494 psi, and the maximum horizontal compres-sive stress in the roof was 1,033 psi. Results indicated a trend of low horizontal stresses in the Yampa Coalfield that have not impacted ground control conditions in mines less than 1,000 ft deep.

Jan 1, 1988

By A. R. Taylor Jr.

The heat capacities of a-quartz form beryllium fluoride were measured at approximately 3° intervals from 8° to 300° K., using an adiabatic calorimeter. At 298.15° K the heat capacity and entropy were 12.39 cal/deg mole and 12.75 ±0.04 eu respectively. Enthalpy measurements were made with an ice calorimeter at approximately 30° intervals on the quartz and glassy forms of beryllium fluoride between 300° and 1,200° K. A melting point of 825° K and an 0,-8 type transition at 500° K with a heat effect of 75 ca1/mole were deter-mined from the enthalpy data for the quartz-type sample. Beryllium fluoride glass crystallized spontaneously into the quartz modification at 500° K. The heat of the reaction BeF2 (a-quartz) .... BeF2 (glass) was found to be 1,125 ±16 cal/mole at 298° K by solution calorimetry. This value, when corrected to 273° K, was used to correct for the heat absorbed by the formation of glassy BeF2 when the sample was dropped into the ice calorimeter from temperatures above the melting point. Using corrected enthalpy measurements, the heat of fusion was determined to be 1.13 kcal/mole at 825° K.

Jan 1, 1965

By J. H. Holden, C. C. Shale, G. R. Strimbeck, W. S. Bowie

Electrical characteristics are presented for air in a 2 - inch pipe - type electrostatic precipitator operating under dynamic conditions at temperatures of 600 ° to 1,500 ° F and pressures of 0 to 80 psig using a negative discharge electrode . Results of this one - geometry study show that current - voltage relationships are a function of air pressure and temperature and indicate that precipitators can be used at any temperature through about 1,350 ° F over the full range of pressure . Corona starting voltage and sparkover voltage vary directly with pressure and inversely with temperature . At temperatures above 1,350 ° F use of precipitators may be limited to operations at pressures somewhat above atmospheric pressure . Theoretical derivations are presented that relate the effect of gas density on corona starting voltage and the effect of ion mobility on corona current . Deviation from the theory is noted at high current levels . Theoretical discussion is presented to explain the apparent electrical limitations for use of precipitators at high temperature , low gas density , and high corona currents , conditions at which calculated ionic velocities are extremely high . Experimental results are interpreted in terms of the theory presented . 1,500 ° F thermal ionization does not appear to be a critical factor .

Jan 1, 1963

By G. B. Atkinson

The Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with McDermitt Mine, investigated a method for recovering mercury metal from mercury sulfide flotation concentrate by a hydrometallurgical technique. This preliminary report shows the feasibility of leaching mercury with a cupric chloride solution and electrowinning mercury from the solution. Proposed chemical reactions are shown in equations 1 through 3: 2CuC12 + HgS + 2CuCl + HgC12 + S°; (1) electrolysis HgC12 ?Hg + C12; (2) 2CuC1 + C12 ? 2CuC12. (3) A bench-scale leaching-electrowinning apparatus capable of treating 2.36 kg of sulfide concentrate in 11 days was operated continuously. An acid chloride solution containing, in grams per liter, 70 Ca, 60 Cu, 30 Fe, and 80 Hg was used as both leachant and electrolyte; 99.5 pct of the mercury was solubilized from the sulfide concentrate. Electrolysis of the leaching solution recovered mercury metal at an average current efficiency of 32 pct and an average energy consumption of 1.2 kwhr/lb Hg. Results from a preliminary economic evaluation indicated that a plant producing 31,500 flasks of mercury per year would have a capital cost of $3.7 million and an operating cost of $62 per flask of mercury.

Jan 1, 1983

By D. E. Shanks

As part of its program to lessen dependence on foreign bauxite as the Nation's primary source of cell-grade alumina, the Bureau of Mines is investigating sulfuric acid (H2S04) leaching procedures for the recovery of alumina from domestic aluminous materials. The successful application of a H2S04 leaching process depends on the recovery of the aluminum values in an easily washed and filtered form, containing a minimum of water to be driven off in the subsequent calcination step. This goal was met by the high-temperature hydrolysis of simulated aluminum sulfate [A12(S04)3] leach liquor. Crystalline, insoluble aluminum hydroxy sulfate [A1(OH)S04], which had a water-to-alumina mole ratio of 1:1, was produced. Eighty-six percent of a solution containing 127 g of A12(S04)3 per liter and 76 pct of a solution containing 336 g of A12(S04)3 per liter were hydrolyzed to insoluble aluminum hydroxy sulfate by autoclaving for 1 hr at 320° C and rapidly quenching to room temperature. Higher operating temperatures were precluded by corrosion of the autoclave. The yield of aluminum in the hydrolysis product increased with increasing hydrolysis temperature and decreasing A12(S04)3 concentration.

Jan 1, 1981

By E. G. King

THIRD-LAW entropy data for zirconium-containing compounds are sparse. Kelley a lists entropies at 298° K. for the oxide, tetrachloride, nitride, and silicate, as well as for the metal. The present paper presents heat capacities between 51° and 298° K. and entropies at 298.15° K. for the zirconates of the alkaline-earth metals-calcium, strontium, and barium. The authors believe magnesium zirconate does not exist as a stable compound at room temperature. Entropies of formation from the constituent oxides also are given. MATERIALS The materials used in this investigation were synthesized and analyzed in the Berkeley Laboratory of the Bureau of Mines. Calcium zirconate was prepared by heating an intimate mixture of reagent-grade calcium carbonate and pure zirconia for 30 hours between 1,200° and 1,300° C. and for 32 hours between 1,400° and 1,500° C. As part of the heating schedule, the sample was ground and mixed seven times. Periodic analyses and minor adjustments of composition were made. Analysis of the final product gave 31.19 percent calcium oxide (theoretically 31.28 percent) and 68.67 percent zirconia (theoretically 68.72 percent). The X-ray diffraction pattern agreed with that in the ASTM catalog.

Jan 1, 1960

By Thomas V. Falkie, R. Venkataramani

The method of analysis was to test a large model containing potentially significant variables and on the basis of the results obtained, to reduce the model to one containing only the essential significant variables. This stepwise procedure of "scanning" a large proposed model and subsequently condensing the model consisted of two cycles of the same series of computational procedures. Data Preparation A majority of the variables measured were continuous over a specific range of values; for example, the variable "Width Ratio" varied in practice from 0.25 to 1.00. However, "dummy" values were assigned to certain operational variables in order that these varia¬bles would have numerical expression. The following variables were described in this manner. Variable "Dummy" Value x3: Development/Pillaring 0, if pillar extraction was being done 1, if development mining was being done x4: Boxcut/Open Cut 0, if a box cut was being made 1, if an open cut was being made The variables under consideration are represented symbolically as follows: Y: Loading rate (tons per minuts): TONS/MIN x1: Ratio, width of cut/width of cutter: WDRATIO x2: Ratio, height of cut/diameter of cutter: HTRATIO x3: Development or pillaring: D/P

Jan 1, 1972

By Keith Harris

The U.S. economy grew moderately in the second quarter of 1985 with real gross national product (GNP) recording a seasonally adjusted annual growth rate of 2.0%, up from the 0.3% growth of the previous quarter but significantly below the 7.1% growth of the second quarter of 1984 (table I). Personal consumption expenditures grew 5.3%, with purchases of durable and nondurable goods rising 7.4% and 5.1 %, respectively; nonresidential and residential fixed investment--the two components of fixed investment--grew 11.8% and 5.6%, respectively; and Government spending rose 3.6%. However, these gains were tempered by a major decline in the growth of business inventories (from $19.1 billion to $8.3 billion) and the continuing growth of the net export deficit (from -$28.4 billion to -$33.3 billion). While the high value of the dollar compared with other currencies has been a major cause of the expanding trade deficit, its value, as measured by the monthly Federal Reserve Board (FRB) multilateral trade-weighted dollar index, has declined over 17 index points from its February peak to 140.94 in July. The July dollar value was still high historically. The rate of inflation, as measured by the fixed-weighted price index for GNP, remained low at 4.1%, down from 4.3% in the first quarter, and employment continued to grow at a rate sufficient to keep up with new additions to the labor force. Civilian unemployment has remained steady at 7.3% over the past 6 months. Industry Statistics The FRB recently revised its index of industrial production and changed the base year from 1967 to 1977,1/ The revised total index shows a 0.1 % higher annual growth rate between 1967 and 1984 than the previous index. In the slower growing or declining industries, such as metal mining, primary metals, and fabricated metals, however, downward revisions in the indices and rates of growth have occurred. The previous and revised annual rates of growth between 1977 and 1984 for several of the sectors of interest to the mining industry are shown in table 2.

Jan 1, 1985

By C. S. Allbright

This report gives the results of analyzing three groups of crude shale oils by the Bureau of Mines procedure:4/ (1) Oils produced by standard Fischer assay determinations on oil shales from Brazil (Paraiba Valley) and the United States (Colorado); (2) oils produced from Brazilian shale by different retorting methods; and (3) oils from high-temperature retorting of Colorado oil shale in the Entrained Solids retort. It is the second in a series presenting data obtained by analyzing crude shale oils from various sources. The series furnishes information on the general characteristics and compositions of a wide variety of shale oils. Use of a standard analytical method on all samples facilitates comparison of different oils. The 18 oil samples analyzed in this project comprised 3 from assays of Brazilian and Colorado oil shales in the Fischer retort, 9 obtained by processing Brazilian shale in various other units, and 6 from entrained solids retorting of Colorado shale at 1,000° to 1,500° F. The crude oils from Brazilian shale contained about half as much nitrogen as the Colorado oils. Properties of the Fischer assay oils from Colorado shales agreed with some data that relate grade of the oil shale with properties of the crude oil from the Fischer assay. Comparison of results from Fischer assays of oils from the foreign and domestic shales shows that the oil from Brazilian shale contains more low-boiling material and less residuum than either of the two from Colorado shale. This fact is reflected in lower specific gravity, viscosity, and carbon-residue values for the Brazilian oil. Retorting Brazilian shale in the Entrained Solids unit at 1,120° F. produced an oil whose boiling range was generally lower than the boiling ranges of oils obtained by processing in three other retorts at conventional temperatures. The quality of crude oils from high-temperature retorting of Colorado shale in the Entrained Solids process varies with retorting temperature. As the temperature is raised within the range 1,000° to 1,500° F., the amount of the naphtha fraction in the crude oil increases to about 35 percent and the aromaticity to 98 percent.

Jan 1, 1956

By Seth C. Scharfer

"As part of the Bureau of Mines effort to provide thermodynamic data for the advancement of mineral technology, the Gibbs energies of formation of MoS2 (molybdenite) and WS2 (tungsten disulfide) were determined with high-temperature galvanic cells employing stabilized Zr02 (zirconia) as the electro¬lyte. In the temperature range from 867 to 1,209 K, potential measurements were obtained for the cellPt, MoS2 , Mo02 , SO2 = 1 atm // Zr02 // 02 = 0.0112 atm, Pt, with the overall cell reactionMoS2(c) + 3 02(g, 0.0112 atm) = Mo02 (c) + 2 S02(g). (1)These results, combined with the best available values for Gibbs energies of formation (?G°f) of Mo02 (molybdenum dioxide) and SO2 (sulfur dioxide) from the literature, give the standard Gibbs energy of formation of MoS2, ?G°f, for the reactionMo(c) + S2(g) = MoS2(c) (2)?G°f = -96.681 + 43.76 x 10-3T±0.538 kcal/mole, (3)where temperature (T) is expressed in Kelvins.Similar measurements in the temperature range from 872 to 1,210 K were obtained for the cellPt, WS2 , W03 , SO2 = 1 atm // Zr02 // 02 = 0.0114 atm, Pt, with the overall cell reactionWS2(c) + 3.5 02(g, 0.0114 atm) = W03 (c)+ 2 S02(g). (4) Combination of these results with the best available data of ?G°f for W03 (tungsten trioxide) and SO2 from the literature gives the Gibbs energy of formation of WS2 in the temperature range from 872 to 1,210 K for the reactionW(c) + S2(g) = WS2 (c)(5)?G°f = -92.429 + 43.88 x 10-3T ± 0.280 kcal/mole. (6)A third-law analysis yields a standard enthalpy (?H°f) for the reaction298Mo(c) + 2 S(rh) = MoS2(c), (7)?H°f = -67.36±0.60 kcal/mole, (8)298where the standard states are pure crystalline MoS2 / and rhombic sulfur."

Jan 1, 1980

By Edward P. Barrett

[Iron oxides, when reduced at temperatures below 900° form a dark gray substance, very porous bait otherwise in almost the same form as the original particles. In the temperature ire range of 1,000 to 1,100° the product is pertly sintered but still shows the outlines of the original particles. Those products are known as "sponge iron." At temperatures of 1,100 to 1,2000 the metallic iron begins to flow together and to a semifused, pasty, porous mass called a "bloom," which can he worked under a hammer to form a product similar to wrought iron; it contains slag inclusions and is too low in carbon to make steel. If the temperature is 1,300 to 1,300°, part of the iron will fuse enough to absorb more carbon. The dissolved carbon lowers the melting point and still more carbon is absorbed. The melted portion acts a flux for the unmelted metallic particles until the entire mass becomes a high-carbon fluid known as "cast iron." Sponge iron was probably the form in which the first iron was recovered from the ores. As early as the eighth century the Catlan forge3 developed into a low-shaft furnace known as the "high bloomary," in which iron eras produced in the form of a pasty mass. In 1340 the first blast furnace was built in Belgium. The greater part of the iron was made into wrought-iron blooms by crude puddling processes. Charcoal was used as the fuel until tie latter part of the 17th century when coke was used in England. In 1865 Bessemer built his first converter in. England, and within a few years the Siemen's regenerative open-hearth furnace was developed, also in England. Enormous expansion in the metallurgy of iron followed. The idea of "direct processes" for the production of iron arid steel has persisted throughout all this time. The production of steel from sponge iron has theoretical advantages over the present-day standard methods, and handreds of so--called "direct processes" have been proposed or tried during the past century.4]

Jan 1, 1929