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By M. B. Standing, D. L. Katz

Equilibrium data are reported on the composition and densities of coexisting vapor and liquid phases as a function of Pressure and temperature for four hydrocarbon systems prepared from crude oil and natural gas. The data were observed over a range of pressures from 1000 to 8220 Ib. per sq. in. and at temperatures ranging from 35' to 250°F. The compositions of the hydrocarbon systems were such that the critical temperatures of the mixtures were lower than the range of the investigation. Under these conditions, it is shown that the composition of the systems has a marked effect upon both the absolute value of the equilibrium constants and the change of the constants with pressure for the several components comprising the system. From weight-balance considerations, it has been possible to construct the partial phase diagram of a mixture of a 49.9" A.P.I. crude oil and natural gas having a gas-oil ratio of 3660 cu. ft. per barrel. Descriptions of the apparatus used, the analytical procedure, the material used, and the equilibrium measurements are included. A knowledge of the physical behavior of naturally occurring hydrocarbon mixtures is fundamental to the treatment of many problems in the production, transportation and rehing of petroleum. The recent discoveries of pools having formation pressures up to 7500 lb. per sq. in. and higher, and the development of full-scale equipment to operate at pressures of 5000 lb. per sq. in. or more have greatly increased the need for knowledge of the composition, temperature, pressure and density relationships of coexisting vapor and liquid hydrocarbon phases. The following paper presents the results of investigations upon 22 mixtures of natural gas and crude oil of known com~o~itio~ that had been brought to equilibrium under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure. Data are presented upon the densities and compositions of the coexisting vapor and liquid phases for four different systems containing hydrocarbon material having boiling points from minus 2 5S°F. to well over I000 F. The data were observed Over a pressure range from Iooo Ib. per Sq. in to 8220 lb. Per sq. in. and a temperature range from 35' to 2 50°F. The accepted method of computing the physical relationship between two coexisting phases of a hydrocarbon mixture is by use of the "equilibrium constant" K as proposed by Souders, Selheimer, and Brown. definition,

Jan 1, 1944

By M. B. Standing, D. L. Katz

Equilibrium data are reported on the composition and densities of coexisting vapor and liquid phases as a function of Pressure and temperature for four hydrocarbon systems prepared from crude oil and natural gas. The data were observed over a range of pressures from 1000 to 8220 Ib. per sq. in. and at temperatures ranging from 35' to 250°F. The compositions of the hydrocarbon systems were such that the critical temperatures of the mixtures were lower than the range of the investigation. Under these conditions, it is shown that the composition of the systems has a marked effect upon both the absolute value of the equilibrium constants and the change of the constants with pressure for the several components comprising the system. From weight-balance considerations, it has been possible to construct the partial phase diagram of a mixture of a 49.9" A.P.I. crude oil and natural gas having a gas-oil ratio of 3660 cu. ft. per barrel. Descriptions of the apparatus used, the analytical procedure, the material used, and the equilibrium measurements are included. A knowledge of the physical behavior of naturally occurring hydrocarbon mixtures is fundamental to the treatment of many problems in the production, transportation and rehing of petroleum. The recent discoveries of pools having formation pressures up to 7500 lb. per sq. in. and higher, and the development of full-scale equipment to operate at pressures of 5000 lb. per sq. in. or more have greatly increased the need for knowledge of the composition, temperature, pressure and density relationships of coexisting vapor and liquid hydrocarbon phases. The following paper presents the results of investigations upon 22 mixtures of natural gas and crude oil of known com~o~itio~ that had been brought to equilibrium under controlled conditions of temperature and pressure. Data are presented upon the densities and compositions of the coexisting vapor and liquid phases for four different systems containing hydrocarbon material having boiling points from minus 2 5S°F. to well over I000 F. The data were observed Over a pressure range from Iooo Ib. per Sq. in to 8220 lb. Per sq. in. and a temperature range from 35' to 2 50°F. The accepted method of computing the physical relationship between two coexisting phases of a hydrocarbon mixture is by use of the "equilibrium constant" K as proposed by Souders, Selheimer, and Brown. definition,

Jan 1, 1944

Andy H. Vassiliou – Introduction Ladies and gentlemen,.good evening and welcome to the Paul F. Kerr Memorial Symposium dinner. I believe we are all here to honor the memory of a great teacher and advisor, and a true friend -- Professor Kerr, or Dr. Kerr, or to most of us who were his students, "Pappy" Kerr. Most of us who attended the Paul F. Kerr Memorial Symposium earlier today at the New York Hilton had the opportunity to read, or listen to, or discuss scientific papers presented in honor of Dr. Kerr. In addition, all of the speakers had the opportunity to reminisce about their association with Dr. Kerr, who was credited as having contributed substantially to their graduate education and the development of their careers. Dr. Kerr's two daughters -- Ruth and Nancy -- who attended the Symposium at the Hilton are also here with us tonight. I think we should keep tonight's festivities on an informal basis since we are all old friends or former students of Dr. Kerr. Some of us may want to say a few words about our experiences at the time we were students at Columbia, and hopefully include some anecdotes relating to Professor Kerr. I would like to invite everyone to do so, but first we have arranged for two of us to be the lead speakers, whom I will introduce in a few moments.

Jan 1, 1985

By William J. Gillich, Gerald L. Moss

PREVIOUS studies of the shock loading of randomly oriented polycrystalline aggregates have firmly established that, after rather short load duration, hydrostatic compression closely approximates the shocked state.' However, McQueen deduced from pressure measurements with good time resolution that, during shock loading, metals begin to undergo a stress relaxation at the yield stress. He suggested that the relaxation is due to plastic deformation accompanying the change from a one-dimensional compression to a three-dimensional, hydrostatic, compression.' Stress relaxation may occur faster as stress is increased above the yield stress, but the existence of unidirectionally compressed states for finite times suggests that the concept of a unidirectionally distorted lattice should furnish considerable insight into the mechanical behavior of materials subjected to shock loading. Here, a crystallographic analysis is presented for the hypothetical situation where atom motion may be considered as unidirectional which, as indicated above, is a useful extension of the macroscopic concept of shock loading to the microscopic domain. Only motion caused by the com-pressive forces is treated; i.e., lattice vibrations upon which this motion is superimposed, as discussed by Fitzgerald, are ignored.3 The purpose of the analysis to be presented is to develop a description for single crystals of the lattice rotations that occur for idealized uniaxial strain deformation. The usefulness of such an analysis in realistic deformation is to give a method of specification of those properties of an initially distorted lattice which would affect the subsequent deformation. Non-axial complications that arise experimentally, such as off-axis rarefaction waves, must be treated in proper context. Consider the material element shown in Fig. 1 and let the compression be uniform at all regions of the element. Then, any interior point of the element is displaced in proportion to its distance from the base of the element. Accordingly, if the top of a unit element is displaced by an amount, (-K), with respect to the base, a point P(X, Y) will be displaced by (-KY). Crystal planes are, therefore, rotated by the compression. Analysis of this rotation may be accomplished from the geometry shown in Fig. 1 where the line OP is the edge of the plane {hkl} and N is its normal. The orientation of the crystal plane with respect to the shock direction is specified by the angle, before deformation. After deformation the edge of plane {hkl}

Jan 1, 1969

By Lucius W. Mayer

The iron-mines of the Ilsede Hutte Co. are at a town called Peine, about 20 miles east of the city of Hanover, on the railroad to Brunswick (Braunschweig). Hanover, the capital of the province, is a military city, of approximately 250,000 inhabitants, and Brunswick, 33 miles to the westward, has half this number. The mines here described are located in a hamlet called Bulten. The Ilsede Hutte Co. operates two mines, 1.5 miles apart, in this district, Gruber Bulten Adenstadt and Gruber Lengede Bodenstadt. It also operates an iron-mine north of Hanover, known as Eiserhaven, and one in the Harz mountains, the Georg Friedrich, at Grauhof. At Bulten a coarse conglomerate, a, Figs. 1 and 2, contains nodules of limonite, cemented together by calcium phosphate. The ore contains Fe, 25 to 45; Mn, 3 to 4; P, 0.6 to 1.4; '5, 0.02 to 0.09; and CaCO,, 40 per cent. Directly above the conglomerate is limestone, 6, followed by a mixture of clay and sand, c. Below the conglomerate is a hard clay floor, d. The ore-body, from 10 to 12 km. long, and from 3 to 4 km. wide, has a maximum thickness of 20 m. It dips approximately 10" S.E., and strikes K 45° E. Diamond-drill prospecting shows that the thickness diminishes to 1 m. as the end of the deposit is approached to the northward. At this point the deposit is 250 m. below the surface. In Fig. 2, the arrow, A, indicates the general direction of the work along the face, a, which is carried forward in a straight line for its entire length. At B, a train is approaching, which has come from the bench-track, shown at C, by a circuitous route, and is dumping the overburden behind the face, in the space left by the excavated rock. Formerly the work at this mine mas essentially open-cut, the deposit having a very strong outcrop. Figs. 1 and 2 show also

Jan 1, 1909

By G. C. Stone

At the conclusion of my paper on the same subject read at the Boston meeting of the Institute, I offered to send some of sample No. 2 to any chemist who wished to analyze it. Eight chemists wrote to me for samples; so far I have received results from five. I give these results in a table (on the following page), together with the results previously obtained: As to the chemists and their methods : K is an iron-works chemist whom I only know by correspondence; lie writes: "No. 27(13.64) was obtained by the method I generally use, as follows : Dissolve 0.8 grams spiegel in hydrochloric acid and a little potassium chlorate, in a half-liter flask. Boil off most of the acid, add ammonia in slight excess, redissolve in acetic acid, using rather more than is really necessary, and then add 8 or 10 grams of sodium acetate and make up to the mark with warm water. Boil hard for fifteen minutes, then allow to settle (cool?), until the liquid reaches the mark, and withdraw 300 C.C. of the nearly clear liquid. Add to this an excess of hydrochloric acid, evaporate to dryness, take up with hydrochloric acid and water, and separate the iron by two precipitations with ammonia (I have often tested the ferric hydrate for manganese, but have never found any, if the separation by ammonia was properly made). Finally, precipitate the manganese as phosphate." Nos. 28, 29 (13.35, 13.07) were by Ford's method." No. 30 (13.50) was by Troilus's method He writes, " I may add the results are quite as good as I expected, although for any element except manganese, they are not close enough for anything like accurate work." L is a firm of commercial chemists of large experience who have made a specialty of iron work. Their method is as follows : Dissolve

Jan 1, 1884

THE discussion of this topic at the Open-hearth Conference at Detroit on Nov. 3, 1927, was opened by statements of the general principles involved, made by manufacturers of molds. Because of their general interest they are printed below. WILLIAM HAIL RAMAGE,* Hubbard, Ohio.-I did not come prepared to read a paper, thinking. the most I would be called upon to do would be to make a few, remarks by way of discussion. A number of our friends have pre-viously asked questions. similar to this which really does not permit a direct "yes" or "no" answer. If I may he pardoned for so doing, I believe it advisable to discuss rather what we consider the principal factors which in-fluence mold life. I think possibly a little undue weight has been given to the subject of the analysis of the metal. For the last eight years we have spent a lot of time, effort, and money investigating this very problem from a chemical, physical and microscopic standpoint. We have had the benefit of complete records and history of over 100,000 molds in service at a variety of plants and over long periods of time. Obviously, I cannot be so specific that I should divulge information that is really a trade secret. In our opinion the principal factors influencing mold life are: (1) design of the mold; (2) process of manu-facture, including workmanship; (3) care in the steel plant or what might be termed "the use or abuse" in the steel plant; (4) the analysis of the iron and the physical con-dition of it. Under normal conditions these factors are of importance in the order named, although in specific cases they might be rearranged in any order you choose. For instance, the best mold made can be destroyed in one or two pours by subjecting it to certain conditions which are occasion-ally met in steel plant practice. Obviously, in that case, nothing else matters but that one item. On the other hand, I have seen molds made of such a terrible design that it was a foregone conclusion it would have to be broken after the second pour of the ingot to get it out. In that case, nothing but design mattered. As to the effect of process of manufacture, let me cite a case. Some years ago there were two batches of molds sent to a certain company. They were the same sized molds, used under the same conditions and in the same kind of service. There were, 20 molds in each batch. The second batch sent gave ten times the life of the first batch. It is true that the design was changed a little, but not very much, and it was not. a bad mold to begin with. It is possible that the iron may have been better in the second consignment but not very much. In my opinion, it is con-servative to say that of the 900 per cent improvement in life, 5 per cent was probably due to better iron, 25 per cent to better design and the remaining 870 per cent to process of manufacture and workmanship.

Jan 2, 1928

By G. H. Clamer

Page Bronze Bearing Metals. By G. H. Clamer............... 162 Pennsylvania Railroad Anti-friction and Bell Metals. By F. M. Waring .. 166 The Tin-plate Industry. By D. M. BUck. Discussed by G. H. ClameR, J. W. RICHARDS............................ 168 The Aluminum Bronze Industry. By W. M. Corse............ 171 Bronzes, Bearing Metals, and Solders. By G. K. BURgess and R. W. Woodward. Discussed by G. H. Clamer, R. T. Roberts......... 175 Babbitts and Solder. By G. W. Thompson................ 184 The Cadmium Supply of the United States. By C. E. Siebenthal. Discussed by M. L. Lissberger, C. W. Hill, F. F. ColcoRd.......... 185 Solder, Its Use and Abuse. By M. L. LissbergeR............ 192 Bronze Bearing Metals G. H. ClameR,* Philadelphia, Pa.—Unfortunately, prior to the war no serious attention was given to the conservation of tin, notwithstanding that this country is practically dependent upon outside sources for its entire tin supply. Tin is of vital importance in many industries, but it is surprising how many and how excellent are its substitutes when we become acquainted with them. Tin has always been a relatively high-priced metal, and it is part of the human attitude to associate high prices with high standards; it is not until the price of a commodity becomes well-nigh prohibitive that we hunt for substitutes, because the idea of substitution seems always to involve an assumption that the substitute must necessarily be inferior. The history of the development of bearing bronzes is a striking example of this policy. In the early days, copper-tin alloys were almost universally used, the idea then being prevalent, which is still held by many, that a bearing to resist wear must be hard, and the harder the better. The favorite bronze bearing contained 90 per cent. copper and 10 per cent. tin; frequently, in service which was considered severe, even higher proportions of tin were used. Such hard alloys have great resistance to compression, but as a rule they had a very wide factor of safety in this

Jan 1, 1919

C. P. Sandberg, London, Eng. 1 think we should all be grateful to the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, and to their chemist, Dr. Dudley, for spending so much time and money in order to solve an important question; nor are me less indebted to the public spirit which leads them to impart tlie experience thus gained. In Europe nothing similar has hitherto been done, either by a company or by any private individual. In England the great railway companies employ their engineers in other ways, and do not keep a chemist or specialist to study rails; bat even if they did they would probably not publish the results. The chief professional engineers are so occupied with their private practice of railroad construction generally, that they cannot be expected to devote their time and energies to so special a question. The German Railway Union has, in my opinion, missed the real object of its elaborate researches by falling into the error of specifying costly, impracticable tests for rails—tests at the same time which do not infallibly expose the impurities that may be in the rails under examination. There has, therefore, been nothing done on this side of the Atlantic in the way of exhaustive study to determine the best composition for steel rails. America should consequently have full credit for the enlightened example which she has set. I wish, however, to make a few remarks on Dr. Dudley's second paper,—& paper which follows very much upan the same lines of argument as the first red three years ago, upon which I have previously touched in my pabr on the same subject read at the meeting in August last. If Dr. Dudley had discovered a new metal he could hardly, I think, have taken wore pains to prove that he was correct in his first formula for the best chemical colnposition of steel rails. But I hare seen so much done in the way of proof by experiment that I am inclined to think that almost anything can be proved by experiments and by satnples. If Dr. Dudley would only give up his formula, which would not suit any country—not even America—

Jan 1, 1881

By H. W. Schadler

Single crystals of tungsten, which were grown by electron bombardment floating zone refining, were strained 2 pet in tension and bending at 298°, 77°, and 20°K to determine the modes and crystallography of the plastic deformation of these temperatures. At 77° and 20°K plastic deformation occurs by slip on systems of the type (011) [111] and by twinning on (112)-type planes. For crystals strained at 298°K, deformation occurs by slip in [111] directions on either (Oil)- or (112)-type planes. CURRENT models for the initiation of brittle fracture in crystalline materials are based on a knowledge of the details of their plastic deformation.1 Body-centered cubic tungsten exhibits brittle failure at temperatures below about 500 °K yet the modes and crystallography of its plastic deformation have not been studied below 1000°K. In 1924, Goucher2 reported that tungsten single crystals with a total impurity content of less than 0.01 wt pet deformed by slip on the (112) [111] system in the temperature range 1000° to 3000°K. He also observed (001) [010] slip in one crystal which was constrained by the presence of a large fissure. According to Barrett3 tungsten also deforms by twinning on the (112) plane in the [111] direction, but he gives no details on the tendency for twin formation or the temperature range in which twinning occurs. Therefore, as a necessary part of a study of the factors influencing the brittle fracture of tungsten, the modes and crystallography of the plastic deformation were determined at 298°, 77°, and 20°K. Tungsten single crystals, grown using the electron-bombardment zone-refining technique first described by Calverly,4 were deformed to between 1 and 2 pet plastic strain in tension and bending. The surface offset resulting from slip or twinning was observed with an optical microscope to determine the crystallography of the deformation. The existence of twins was proven by the standard polishing and etching technique; and the crystallography of dislocation motion was followed using the dislocation etchant described by Wolff.5 Some observations on the fracture characteristics of tungsten single crystals are included. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES Growth, Purity, and Perfection of the Crystals-Several years ago Calverly, Davis, and Lever4 dem-onstrated the feasibility of growing tungsten single crystals by the electron-bombardment floating zone-refining technique, and Carlson6 showed that crystals produced in this way had a high degree of purity and were ductile at room temperature. Tungsten single crystals produced by this technique in equipment similar to that described by Carlson were used in this study. The starting material, a powder metallurgy product, was obtained in the form of a swaged 1/8-in. rod from the General Electric Wire Plant in Cleveland, Ohio. The crystals were grown from this material in a vacuum of 10"4 mm of Hg by passing a molten zone 1/8 in. long down the rod twice at a speed of 3 mm per min. At this zone speed

Jan 1, 1961

By Joseph Newton

MUCH the same story can be told about the copper industry for the year 1944 as for the three preceding years. Operators report few or no technical changes at their plants and the main endeavor has been to maintain high production with existing equipment. No large new installations have been made to increase plant capacities and apparently over-all copper production has passed its maximum. The present decline in copper production results partly from the severe labor shortage. As is true of most industries; the outstanding fact about the copper industry during the past few years has been its tremendous and sustained production which has been maintained in spite of serious shortages in material. labor, and technical personnel. The figures in Table I give a concrete example of how production has been increased at one large smelter in the United States-the Garfield plant of the American Smelting and Refining Co. at Garfield. Utah. These figures, reported by W. G. Rouillard. superintendent. give the production of the Garfield plant for the five years 1940-44 inclusive. The total blister production

Jan 1, 1945

ON Oct. 5, 1926, the day before the general ses-sions of the fall meeting of the American Insti-tute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers at Pittsburgh, a round table conference on the combus-tibility and testing of coke was held at the Bureau of Mines Experiment Station. There were about fifty present, with A. C. Fieldner, chief chemist of the Bureau of Mines, as chairman. The following organi-zations were represented: American Institute of Min-ing and Metallurgical Engineers, American Society for Testing Materials, American Gas Association, Eastern States Blast Furnace and Coke Oven Association, Gas and Fuel Division of, American Chemical Society, and Southern Ohio Pig Iron and Coke Association. In opening the proceedings, Mr. Fieldner explained that the meeting had been called at the suggestion of several members of the Institute and members of other organizations. The subject is of interest to the pro-ducer and the user of coke whether it be in a blast furnace, cupola furnace, house-heating furnace, open grate, gas producer, or in a water-gas generator. There has been much confusion on this subject largely because there is no common definition of combustibility. Does the blast-furnace superintendent, the coke-oven operator, and the fuel engineer have the same under-standing of the term "combustibility"? If a common understanding can be reached, many differences of opinion will disappear. COMBUSTIBILITY OF COKE R. H. Sweetser of Columbus, Ohio, disagreed with the statement of P. H. Royster, T. L. Joseph, and S. P. Kinney in Reports of Investigations, Serial No. 2524, of the Bureau of Mines, in which it was stated that the coke-oven op-erator cannot change coke combustibility by modifying oven practice. Mr. Sweetser held that the coke-oven man can change the combustibility of coke. Blast-furnace men know that coke that will burn easily with low pressure and will. come down in the regular way in the furnace can be pro-duced from a given mixture of coal. His idea of the combustibility of coke is the rate of flow through the com-bustion zone of the blast furnace. If the coke does not pass through in normal manner it is highly incombustible. H. J. Rose of the Koppers Co., Pittsburgh, objected to being pinned down so closely on this phase of the com-bustibility and incombustibility of coke. Coke-oven men are frequently obliged to change oven conditions to make a coke which gives blast-furnace men what they want. The size of the coke and the screening have an important bear-ing on combustibility, and there are many cases on record where by simply changing the different sizes of the coke, everything worked smoothly, and that is a much more combustible coke.

Jan 1, 1927

C. P. SANDBERG, LONDON, ENG : † I think we should all be grateful to the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, and to their chemist, Dr., Dudley, for spending so much time and money in order to solve an important question ; nor are we less indebted to the public spirit which leads them to impart the experience thus gained. In Europe nothing similar has hitherto been done, either by a company or by any private individual. In England the great railway companies employ their engineers in other ways, and do not keep a chemist or specialist to study rails; but even if they did they would probably not publish the results. The chief professional engineers are so occupied with their private practice of railroad construction generally, that they cannot be expected to devote their time and energies to so special a question. The German Railway Union has, in my opinion, missed the real object of its elaborate researches by falling into the error of specifying costly, impracticable tests for rails-tests at the same time which do not infallibly expose the impurities that may be in the rails under examination. There has, therefore, been nothing done on this side of the Atlantic in the way of exhaustive study to determine the best composition for steel rails. America should consequently have full credit for the enlightened example which she has set. I wish, however, to make a few remarks on Dr. Dudley's second paper, a paper which follows very much upon the same lines of argument as the first read three years ago, upon which I have previously touched in my paper on the same subject read at the meeting in August last. If Dr. Dudley had discovered a new metal he could hardly, I think, have taken more pains to prove that he was correct in his first formula for the best chemical composition of steel rails. But I have seen so much done in the way of proof by experiment that I am inclined to think that almost anything can be proved by experiments and by samples. If Dr. Dudley would only give up his formula, which would not suit any country-not even America- * For the convenience of members it has bees thought best to insert the continuation of this discussion at the Virginia meeting in tide place, rather than to delay its permanent publication until the issue of Volume X, Transactions, where it would properly belong. T. M. D., Sec'y, † Sent to the secretary in manuscript.

Jan 1, 1881

By S. A. Lever, R. Hultgren

The solidus is usually the least satisfactorily determined portion of a phase diagram. Cooling curves, which succeed well with the liquidus, show the solidus inaccurately or not at all because of segregation which occurs during freezing. Heating curves of carefully homogenized alloys might be expected to indicate accurately the solidus, but they are seldom used. Dynamic methods involving heating or cooling are never completely satisfactory because of uncertainty as to whether equilibrium is attained. A static method in which the specimen may be allowed hours, days, or even weeks to attain equilibrium is to be preferred. In a static method a solid solution, for example, is first made thoroughly homogeneous, then heated to successively higher temperatures. After sufficient time at each temperature to assure equilibrium, some property is measured which should alter strikingly when melting begins. Microscopic examination can be used to detect the beginning of melting, but the method is tedious since the specimen must be quenched, sectioned, polished, and etched before each examination. Of all the physical properties which change on melting, electrical resistance is probably the most satisfactory to measure. The measurement may be made while the specimen is at temperature without damage to the specimen. It may be repeated indefinitely to ascertain when equilibrium has been achieved. Measurements may be made on a single specimen over the whole range of temperature. Most metals approximately double their resistance on melting. Since an accuracy of a few tenths of a percent is easy to achieve, the method is highly sensitive to the beginning of melting. In spite of these advantages, which have been perceived for a long time,l,2 a reasonable search of the literature has failed to reveal a single case in which the method has been satisfactorily applied in practice to the determination of solidus temperatures. The use of electrical resistance measurements appears to have been confined in practice to changes in the solid state. In the work described in the following pages we have applied the electrical resistance method to the solidus of the lead-tin system. We have found the method to be convenient, reproducible, and highly sensitive. We chose the lead-tin system because it leads to few technical difficulties. Furthermore, a number of determinations of solidus have been made in this system by various methods and results could be checked against them. However, all published results are not in good agreement with one another, so this work should help in determining the solidus more precisely. The Lead-tin Diagram Because of its commercial importance, there have been numerous investigations of the lead-tin diagram. The results of the most recent work on the solidus are indicated in Fig 7, as well as the results of the present work. The works of Honda and Abe3 and of Stockdale4 agree fairly well with each other and with the present work. Jeffery's5 data indicate the solidus to be about 50°C lower. Honda and Abe3 used differential thermal analysis on both heating and cooling cycles. Stockdale4 used the microscopic method and also differential heating curves. Stockdale's results were about 4" higher than those of Honda and Abe at low tin contents and lower at higher tin contents. These results also agree with those of Rosen-hain and Tucker.= Jeffery5 used electrical resistance measurements of the alloy as it was being heated or cooled. Apparently he did not attain equilibrium as his results are about 40°C lower than those of Stockdale4 or Honda and Abe.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS The lead and tin used were of high purity. They were supplied by the American Smelting and Refining Co., who gave the following analyses: Lead: silver, 0.0016 oz per ton; copper, 0.0008 pct; cadmium, 0.0007 pct; zinc, 0.0002 pct; arsenic, 0.0003 pct; antimony, 0.0002 pct; bismuth, 0.0005 pct; tin, 0.0001 pct; iron, 0.0020 pct; lead (by difference), 99.995 pct. Tin: antimony, 0.037 pct; arsenic, 0.020 pct; bismuth, 0.004 pct; cadmium, trace; copper, 0.025 pct; iron, 0.004 pct; lead, 0.020 pct; nickel and cobalt, 0.005 pct; silver, 0.0005 pct; sulphur, 0.005 pct; tin (by .-difference). 99.88 pct. One hundred grams of metal with the desired proportions of lead and tin was weighed out to the nearest one-tenth of a milligram. The mixture was placed in a silica crucible, covered with charcoal, and melted in a reducing atmosphere in a gas-fired furnace. The alloy was well stirred. Chemical analysis of two of the alloys checked closely with the weighed portions. The compositions of the remainder of the alloys were taken directly from the weighings, without chemical analysis.

Jan 1, 1950

By J. H. Brophy, S. J. Michalik

A constitution diagram for the system Mo-Ir has been determined. The maximum solubility of iridium in molybdenum is 16 at. pct at 2110ºC and decreases to less than 5 at. pct at 1500°C. The solubility of molybdenum in iridium is 22 at. pct. Three intermediate phases appear in the system: 8 MoJr, having the p-tungsten structure; a phase, a cornplex tetragonal structure; and the hcp ? phase. Metallography, melting point determinations, X-ray diffraction and fluorescence, and electron micro-probe unalyses were employed in establishing the diagram. PREVIOUS to the present investigation, the intermediate phases in the Mo-Ir system were identified, but no detailed account of the phase diagram has been reported in the literature. Raub1 investigated alloys of Mo-Ir over an extensive range of composition between the temperatures of 800º and 1600°C. The in-termetallic compound MosIr was found to exist with nearly pure molybdenum, as the solubility of iridium in molybdenum was not detectable parametrically in this temperature range. MO3Ir was found to be iso-morphic with a ß-tungsten type structure, having a parameter of 4.959Å. An intermediate hcp phase, designated as the ? phase, ranged in composition from 52 to 78.5 at. pct at 800ºC, and from 41 to 78.5 at. pct Ir at 1200°C. Parameters noted for the ? phase were as follows: at 42.7 at. pct Ir, a = 2.771i0, c = 4.4366, c/a = 1.601; at 78.5 at. pct Ir, a = 2.736A, c = 4.378A, c/a = 1.600. Molybdenum was found to be soluble in iridium up to 16.5 at. pct Mo (83.5 at. pct Irj, with the parameter of iridium increasing to 3.845A at the solubility limit. Knapton,2 who investigated alloys between 15 and 85 at. pct Ir, essentially agreed with Raub's data, but, in addition, found a a phase in as-melted alloys near 25 at. pcto Ir. The oaphase lattice parameters were a = 9.64Å, c = 4.96Å, c/a = 0.515. The a phase was replaced by the 8 -tungsten phase on annealing at 1600°C. Knapton concluded that the a was stable only at elevated temperatures, and placed the composition of the a phase at approximately 30 at. pct Ir. The intermetallic compound Mo3Ir, with a lattice parameter of 4.965A, was included among the 8-tungsten structures reported by ~eller.' Matthias and Corenzwit,4 and Bucke15 studied the superconducting nature of MosIr, and reported a superconducting transition temperature of 8.$K. The present investigation describes the phase relationships in the Mo-Ir alloy system determined by melting point measurements, X-ray diffraction and fluorescence, and metallography. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Alloys for the determination of the phase diagram were prepared from powders. Commercial 99.9 pct Mo from Fansteel Metallurgical Corp. and 99.9 pct Ir powder from J. Bishop and Co. Platinum Works were used. The powders were weighed to nominal compositions, mixed, and then pressed, without binder, into compacts weighing 4 to 6 g. These were presintered in uacuo between 1200' and 1400°C for 1 hr, to reduce the degree of spattering during subsequent arc-melting. The compacts were arc-melted in a nonconsumable tungsten electrode furnace six times on alternate sides on a water-cooled copper hearth in an atmosphere of zirconium-getter ed argon at 500 mm of mercury pressure. In almost all cases, this procedure yielded buttons of satisfactory homogeneity. The composition of all melted buttons were confirmed by X-ray fluorescent analysis using the experimentally determined ratio of the iridium La1 line intensity to that of the molybdenum Ka1 line as a function of composition. In this determination four alloys analyzed by wet chemical methods were used as standards. An uncertainty range of ±1 at. pct has been attributed to all indicated compositions. All heat treatments and solidus measurements were carried out in tantalum resistance heating elements in vacuum conditions of 10-4 to 10-5 mm of mercury. A detailed account of this procedure has been reported by Schwarzkopf and Brophy.8 In the heat treatment and solidus measurements of iridium-rich alloys (50 at. pct Ir or greater), a tungsten lining was inserted into the tantalum resistance heating element because of a eutectic reaction which occurs between iridium and tantalum at 1948ºc.7 Heat treatments and solidus measurements carried out at compositions less than 40 at. pct Ir both with and without tungsten linings within the resistance

Jan 1, 1963

By John Hays Hammond

This is an era of " expansion; and, conformably with the change in commercial conditions, the function of the mining engineer, as well as that of his confreres in many other professions, has also expanded. From the position of an engineer, limited to the determination of technical questions, the engineer of to-day has come to assume an economic importance in those branches of industry dependent upon engineering skill for their development. He is indeed an engineer of limited usefulness who does not go further professionally than to submit a purely technical report on subjects presented for his consideration. While he has the same responsibility as formerly in the solution of the technical problems involved, he is further expected to supplement his report with advice on the financial and commercial aspects of these problems. For the great majority of problems presented to the engineer ultimately involve the determination of the pecuniary, relations of the propositions under consideration. The great corporation lawyer no longer earns his fee by merely submitting his opinion as to the legal issues involved in law-suits affecting the corporation; he now assumes charge of the entire legal work, including both the organization of the corporation and the maintenance of its legal status thereafter. In like manner, the engineer, whose report was, as I have said, formerly confined to the determination of the geological and other cognate features of a mining enterprise, is now expected, not. only to embody information on these subjects in his report, but also to give his opinion whether the property offered for sale in pursuance of such an enterprise is worth the price asked for it. Moreover, if he recommends the purchase of a property, he incurs a certain moral responsibility for its efficient manage-

Nov 1, 1908

By Albert S. Trube

Increasing emphasis is being placed on the necessity for obtaining reasonably accurate estimates of the physical properties of reservoir fluids well in advance of more accurate laboratory data. One such factor is the isothermal coefficient of expansion of an undersaturated hydrocarbon liquid which may be contained in a particular reservoir. This coefficient, or liquid "compressibility", has often been assumed to be relatively insensitive and nearly constant. Although this assumption may be nearly correct in the case of high specific gravity liquids, it cannot apply in the case of medium to low specific gravity liquids. Any treatment of the nature of liquid compressibilities must give consideration to the variable nature of the isothermal expansion coefficient and the fact that it can be both pressure sensitive and temperature sensitive. The isothermal coefficient of expansion, or compressibility, of a substance is defined as -c = 1/V (?V/?p)T......(1) The value of Eq. 1 may be approximated for a finite pressure change by using the well-known relation, c = V1 - V1/Ve (p2-p1), ........(2) in which p1 > p1 and V2 > V2 and V1 + V2/2. The instantaneous compressibility may also be estimated from the slope of a curve on which log V is plotted vs pa. In this instance, it has been shown that c = In V1/V2/p2-p1 ...........(3) Eq. 3 may be used for variable compressibilities by plot-ting V vs p on semi-log paper. In this case, the instan-taneous or point compressibility is c = 2.303 m.......... . (4) in which m is the slope of the curve at a point in log cycles per psi. ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY OF UNDERSATURATED LIQUID In the case of gases, the compressibility has been defined by Muskat' and others as Co = 1/p - ?z/z?p ..........(5) This was later generalized through application of the theorem of corresponding states' to co = 1/pr - (?z/z?pr) T8 ........(6) in which c, is defined as the pseudo-reduced compres-sibility and is numerically equal to (c.p,) and the sign is arbitrarily changed for mathematical convenience. Eq. 6 is general and applies to gases and liquids. In the case of liquids, c. = c1,pe, but if Eq. 6 is used, values of z and ?z/?p, must be determined for the liquid in question. The difficulty of obtaining accurate values of ?z/?p,, particularly in the region where T, is approaching 1.00, was pointed out in the previous paper'. This method of approach is unreliable for extension into computations of liquid compressibilities. On the other hand, c, can also be defined as follows: - Cr = 1/Vr (?Vr/?pr) Tr ......(7) and from which, Cr = 1/pr (?pr/?pr) Tr .....(8) In accordance with the theorem of corresponding states, Vr = V/Vr, p, = p/pr and pr = p/pr. Ref. 2 pro-vides an excellent source of reduced density, reduced pressure and reduced temperature data for a wide variety of fluids. For the purpose of this investigation, the set of fluids2 having ze = 0.27 was chosen because it in-cludes most of the heavier hydrocarbons usually found in those complex mixtures loosely defined as "reservoir oils". Data on undersaturated liquids in Ref. 2 were rearranged to conform with Eq. 8. To simplify the computation of cr, the isothermal p, data were plotted vs the log of pr, in which case for any straight line or tangent cr = 1/M pr pr .....(9)

Jan 1, 1958

By R. Schutte, L. W. Trevoy

Commercial production of heavy minerals from plant tailing streams is undergoing study by Syncrude Canada Ltd. When tar sand from an open pit mine is processed and upgraded to synthetic crude oil, heavy minerals can be recovered from the extraction circuit and can be upgraded to provide concentrates of zircon and titanium minerals. The titanium minerals concentrate, consisting of a mixture of ilmenite, leucoxene, and rutile, can be utilized as recovered or can be upgraded to synthetic rutile. With the construction of further synthetic crude oil plants in Western Canada a large reserve of heavy minerals will become available for production.

Jan 1, 1983

By KING HAMILTON GRAYSON

IRON and steel were the only basic industries in the Soviet Republic in 1928 that lagged behind the pre-war production on a comparative basis. This was due to the almost complete obliteration of all industrial units manufacturing iron and steel products during the Revolution, which resulted in the production of 1921 being only 4 per cent of that of 1913. By the end of 1927 the production of pig iron had reached a point equal to 70.5, per cent of 1913; steel was 84 per cent ; and rolled iron was 78 per cent. According to the. planned program of the Supreme Economic Council, the pre-war level of the iron and steel industry was to have been reached and exceeded during 1929-30. The production of the entire period from 1917 to 1928 in comparison with 1913, is shown in the following table

Jan 1, 1929

"No true conception of the Park City mining district can be obtained without first giving consideration to the part it has played as a consistent producer of mineral wealth. Its position in this regard is almost unique in the annals of a lead silver camp. For over fifty years it has been a continuous producer of lead and silver and for twenty years it has added to the world's supply of zinc. Few camps with its productive history are so little known to the mining fraternity for the reason that its life has never been punctuated by periods of ""boom"" which serve to attract general attention, neither has it been the field of operation for promoters who temporarily focus attention upon their scene of action. Its history is one of legitimate mining operations. These were at first carried on by a number of smaller companies. A period of consolidation followed and at the present time the entire production of the camp is in the hands of two major companies and one smaller company. These are flanked by a number of prospecting properties, which are at this time actively engaged in the search for ores and later events will doubtless put some of them in the producing class.A technical discussion of the ore occurrence and mining operations in the camp will be the subject of a paper to be read before this meeting of the Institute. The mission of this article is to supply a ""Baedeker"" where Baedeker is lacking.The town of Park City is a typical, up-to-date, western mining camp which owes its existence as a town of 4,500 inhabitants solely to the mining industry. The camp is located 7,000 feet above sea level, thirty-two miles east of Salt Lake City. It is situated on the Victory Highway seven miles from its junction with the Lincoln Highway and has the benefit of excellent automobile communication with the metropolis of the state. Both the Denver and Rio Grande and the Union Pacific Railroads give daily train service to the camp and effectively solve the transportation problems of the mining companies."

Jan 1, 1925