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By Bradley C. Bockrath

Some thirty coals were evaluated for liquefaction activity under a mixture of CO and H2 at 425° C. The viscosity of the liquid products was taken as an indicator of the degree of liquefaction. It was found that the direct liquefaction of a particular coal may be beneficially influenced by the presence of pyrite. Active pyrites are often found in the native mineral matter of the coal itself. For example, subbituminous and bituminous coals and lignites of relatively high pyrite content were found to liquefy more readily than similar coals or lignites which were poor in pyrite. The reactivity of inactive coals could be improved by using blends with active, pyrite-rich coals. In addition, pyrite was effective when added separately as pyrite concentrates obtained from coal beneficiation operations. Various other iron- and sulfur-bearing additives were also effective when used in combination as added slurry-phase catalysts, including iron oxides and mineral residues derived from liquefaction of active coals. Under liquefaction conditions, pyrrhotite ( Fe I- x5) is formed from pyrite or from the iron oxides and many sulfur containing species. Pyrrhotite was shown to be a hydrogenation/dehydrogenation catalyst for tetralin but is not active for initiating a variety of free radical reactions that do occur when pyrite is heated with tetralin. The role of pyrite in coal liquefaction is complex and still not well understood.

Jan 1, 1981

By M. J. Adam

As part of its research program, the U.S. Bureau of Mines is investigating the partitioning of complex minerals to simpler phases using sulfidation reactions for selective extraction of mineral constituents of value from extraneous elements early in processing schemes. This report describes research in which thermal processing of the complex Ti -bearing mineral ilmenite (FeTiO, ) resulted in partitioning of the valuable Ti metal to the simpler compound rutile (Ti0 ). Samples of ilmenite were blended with elemental S for thermal treatment a2 various temperatures under controlled atmospheres in an effort to dissociate the Fe from the ilmenite complex. Product characterization revealed that the Fe was partitioned from the ilmenite, forming a rim of pyrrhotite/pyri te (FeS/FeS,) on a rutile core. The products were agate milled and then subjected to cursory magnetic and flotation techniques in an attempt to physically separate the partitioned phases. Partitioning results and phase concentration data are reported relative to thermal treatment variables and physical separation techniques.

Jan 1, 1993

By Egil Krystad, Merete Tangstad, Kai Tang, Gabriella Trenell

"A new UMG-Si refining concept has been proposed in this paper. Liquid Si and another liquid metal phase (Me) were separated by the molten slag spontaneously based on their different physicochemical properties. Two metal/slag distribution reactions are able to occur in the system simultaneously. Experimental investigation on the B and P distribution equilibria among Si/slag/Me was carried out in the graphite resistance furnace under the inert atmosphere. The B and P doped silicon was in equilibrium with either the SiO2-CaO or SiO2-CaO-l0%CaF2 slags at 1600 and 1650°C, respectively. The pure Fe and Cu metals were used in order to ""capture"" B and P in the slag phases. B and P in samples were determined by the ICP-MS. B and P distribution coefficients for the Si/slag/Me equilibria were compared with the theoretical calculations. The possible kinetic barriers for the Si/slag/Me three-layer equilibria have been analyzed. The metal contaminations in the three-layer equilibria were also examined. The present study provides a new approach for the refining of MG-Si.IntroductionMost of the impurities in the metallurgical silicon (MG-Si) are rather ""dilute'', ranging from few to several thousand ppms. However, the target impurity levels for upgrade metallurgical silicon (UMG-Si) feedstock are often far below the level of ppm. In such extreme case, the conventional refining technologies face the great technical challenges. B removal by slagging has already been implemented industrially. Removal of Pis frequently carried out by the vacuum distillation. The separating treatments for B and P removals lead to increase refining cost, total CO2 emission and longer pay-back time of solar cell module.It is well known that the phosphate capacities of slags in equilibrium with liquid silicon are extremely lower. However, if we introduce another phase that possesses high ""phosphor capacity"" into the Si/slag system, one would expect to continuously remove P from Si through molten slag to the new ""phosphor capturer"". The so-called three-layer refming concept is thus proposed in the present study. Liquid Si and another liquid phase (Me) are separated by the molten slag spontaneously based on their different physicochemical properties. Two metal/slag distribution reactions are able to occur in the system simultaneously."

Jan 1, 2013

Carbon injection into metallurgical slag is important in electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking for foamy slag practices and in nonferrous slag cleaning operations. The current publication presents kinetic data for coal injection into EAF slag to understand the interaction between injected carbon and metallurgical slag. Coal particles were injected into EAF slag and the kinetics were followed by gas and slag analysis. The results were analyzed, in terms of fundamental rate equations for each possible reaction step, as a function of temperature and slag composition.

Jan 1, 2003

By Tangstadm Merete, Eli Ringdalen

"This paper presents an overview of results from The Norwegian Research Institution SINTEF and the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU regarding new and ongoing research in silicon production. The main studies are related to condensation of SiO gas and cavity formation. If SiO gas condensation is increased at the top of the furnace resulting in SiO content in the off-gas closer to equilibrium, the Si yield will be increased significantly. Experimental work, simulating a cavity under industrial conditions, has shown that the cavity grows downwards from one layer. Physical appearance of zones in industrial furnaces, and selected reactions in these, are discussed based on results from excavation of industrial furnaces and results from laboratory experiments. Experimental studies of reaction rates for the formation of SiO are presented. Quartz properties are demonstrated to vary between differing quartz types and the effect of this is discussed.Introduction Both the theoretical and industrial issues associated with the production of silicon are described in detail in the textbook written by Schei et al [1]. This book covers the knowledge of silicon production process up to 1998. Together with the work by Myrhaug [1] and by Aasly[2], this is the main basis for this paper. Recent and ongoing research at SINTEF and NTNU focusing on production of Si and SiO in the high temperature zone, dissociation of SiO and condensate and cavity formation will be discussed."

Jan 1, 2012

By Masao Suzuki

Over 5 million cars are scrapped yearly in Japan. After dismantling. scrapped automobiles, they are put into a shredder for differential recovery of ferrous and nonferrous metals. The residue, which is called shredder dust, runs over 1.2 million tons per year. This paper reports a entire sequence of scrapping. cars. in Japan with the following sections: (1) production and scrapped car management, (2) material composition, (3) dismantling, (4) shredder plant, (5) differential recovery of metals including specific gravity separation and newly developed color separation.

Jan 1, 1995

By D. M. Hausen

Multiple drill sections through many of the numerous breccia pipes in the American Eagle copper deposit at Copper Creek, Arizona, have been evaluated by means of alteration and geochemical data. Contoured plots indicate vertically plunging, concentric, cylindrical shells of alteration and mineralized rock that are similar in structure, geometry, magnitude and petrology to the San Manuel-Kalamazoo Deposit, located about 14 miles to the southwest. Both deposits are similar in dimension and consist of multiple, irregular, rod-shaped injections of porphyry into a granodiorite host. Analogous to the San Manuel-Kalamazoo Deposit, most of the porphyry plugs are oriented parallel to the cylindrical axis of the "ore shell". A continuously mineralized, elliptical shell, inferred from deep drilling, is capped by a flatter zone of copper mineralization. Above this flat zone, copper-bearing fluids were channeled upward along conduits that correspond with quartz-sericite "breccia pipes". At depth, zones of sericite and K-feldspar alteration products exhibit conformable relationships with the copper deposition. A "bullet-shaped" ore shell, with a nearly vertical axis, is proposed to explain the conformable zones of altered and mineralized rock. The "nose" or top of the "bullet" is 1800 to 2300 feet below the surface, and structurally controlled in part by steeply dipping Hi and ENE faults. If correct, this model suggests that the vertical ore shell may extend to great depth.

Jan 1, 1988

By Alicia Esther Ares

This study was conducted to investigate the directional solidification of Zn-20%A1 and Zn20% A1-1O%Si-3o/oCu alloys under different conditions of heat transfer at the metal/mould interface. The type of structure obtained in both cases was analyzed and related to the solidification thermal parameters such as cooling rate, growth rate, thermal gradient and recalescence which were determined from the temperature versus time curves. These parameters were correlated with the structure-like length of columnar grains and size of equiaxed grains. The metallographic analyses were done performing quantitative metallography and composition analysis of the different alloying elements along the cast samples by SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) and EDXA (Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis). Correlations between properties, structures and thermal parameters were found.

Jan 1, 2008

By N. L. Piret

In copper smelting minimization of solid waste generation is receiving increased attention with more stringent environmental legislation and lower disposal space availability. Copper smelting slags generally being valorizable, solid waste generation is attributed to the presence in the feed of unvalorizable impurities which do not report to the slag and to the unavoidable formation of contaminated dilute acid solutions which need neutralization. As to unvalorizable impurities, solid waste minimization is achieved by rejecting them in the highest possible concentration. Dilute acid is mainly due to the formation of SO3 in the smelter gases and to the discard of decopperized bleed-off electrolyte. Its generation is substantially lowered by preventing SO3 formation, by converting the dilute acid to a valorizable product, e.g., by thermal decomposition for H2S04 recovery or by precipitation as chemical gypsum, and by suitable treatment of the bleed-off electrolyte for impurity removal. Industrial processes are evaluated and alternatives are discussed.

Jan 1, 1994

By Derek J. Fray

"In order to extend the application of fused salts in\the electrowinning and electrorefining of metals, it is necessary to maximise the current density, minimise the voltage drop and greatly increase the area of electrode surface so as to compete with the space-time yield of pyrometallurgical reactions. The various designs of electrowinning cell are reviewed and it is shown that by the application of a modest centrifugal field it is possible to reduce the anode to cathode interelectrode spacing to 4 mm whilst still maintaining a current efficiency of 85-90%.The thermodynamic potential for electrorefining is far less than for electrowinning yet fused salt electrorefining is only applied in limited cases. The reasons for this are discussed and the important design parameters evaluated. It is concluded that by using packed bed electrodes, separated by a diaphragm, the possibility of electrorefining with very low energy consumption can be achieved. Carbothermically-produced metals are always cheaper than those produced by electrolysis but suffer from the disadvantage of low purity. It is proposed that fused salt electrorefining may offer an energy efficient way of upgrading the metal. IntroductionThe majority of metals can be deposited from fused salts (1,2) but as commercial production is restricted to the more reactive elements, it is worthwhile considering the advantages and disadvantages of fused salt electrolysis as' compared to smelting and aqueous electrolysis. The advantages over aqueous extraction are as follows:1) the much higher conductivities and diffusivities result in much lower IR losses and higher current densities can be achieved at modest voltages;2) the elevated temperatures of operation result in larger exchange currents which give rapid kinetics and lower activation polarisation for the electrode reactions;3) the absence of water as a solvent means that it is not necessary to consider the evolution of hydrogen as a competing cathodic reaction. Furthermore, alkali halide salts, often used as solvents in fused salt electrolytes, have high deposition potentials;4) molten salts generally are mutually soluble and, therefore, concentration polarisation effects are minimised."

Jan 1, 1988

By P. N. Anyalebechi

"The as-cast microstructure of two commercial-size ingots of aluminum alloy 3004 produced by the electromagnetic casting process was quantitatively characterized. This involved the quantitative determination of through-thickness and across-width variations in dendrite cell size, grain size, macrosegregation of alloying elements, interparticle spacing, and the types, volume fractions, and sizes of the constituent or second phase particles. More than ninety-five percent of the constituent phases in the ingots consisted of the A16(Mn,Fe) phase; the desirable a-Al 12(Fe,Mn)3Si phase was not detected in any of the ingots by Guinier X-ray diffraction analyses or electron probe X-ray microanalyses. A significant microstructural heterogeneity through the thickness and across the width of both ingots was observed. For example, macrosegregation, and the sizes of the constituent phase particles, dendrite cells, and grains increased concomitantly from edge to mid-width and from surface to center of the ingots. There was a -20% depletion (negative macrosegregation) of Mg and a +54-87% enrichment (positive macrosegregation) of Ti in the center of the ingots. With the exception of grain size, there was no significant microstructural difference between the two ingots examined. The causes and practical implications of the observed microstructural heterogeneity in the ingots are discussed.IntroductionThe first step in the fabrication of majority of wrought products of aluminum and its alloys is the casting of large ingots or billets of simple shapes (round or rectangular). The sizes of the ingots vary from 10 mm to 450 mm diameter or 25 mm to 780 mm thick. The quality of the finished products is established at the ingot casting stage. This is because the microstructural characteristics, such as secondary dendrite cell size or arm spacing, amount of alloying elements retained in solid solution, macrosegregation, and the characteristics of second phases, produced during casting cannot be reversed by subsequent processing. Up until twenty-five years ago, the effect of as-cast microstructure of large ingots on the structure and behavior of thin sheets (0.34 mm thick) during drawing and ironing processes was incorrectly assumed to be minimal or nonexistent. This was based on the erroneous notion that the thermal treatments and large reduction (>99.94%) and strain that the ingot undergoes during production of the sheets completely destroys the original ingot structure and its inherent heterogeneity. However, the effects of ingot structure can, a priori, be deduced from the observed effects of constituent phase particle size, type and volume fraction on recrystallization, development of texture during annealing and deformation, and earing. In fact, careful examination of the behavior of products produced from different size ingots or castings have shown that the original microstructure of the ingot has a direct impact on the properties and performance of the end products."

Jan 1, 2011

By John J. Dunkley

Recent years have seen the increased use of hydrometallurgy in the smelting and refining of metals. However this is often used as a final refining step, following an initial pyrometallurgical smelting process. Huge amounts of material are produced as melts which have to be cast, comminuted, and taken up into solution or leached. A common method is to granulate the melt and then grind it. In the case of metallic melts this can be difficult or unfeasible due to the ductility of the granulated particles. Water atomisation is capable of replacing the granulation and grinding stages with a single process step that can process in excess of 30t/hour of melt into particles as fine as 50 microns. Applications in operation in Co, Cu, Ni, Ag, Au, Pt and Rh refining are discussed together with potential applications in copper smelting.

Jan 1, 2003

By I. Gaballah

The kinetics of oxychlorination of pure CI-2O3 with C12+02 gas mixtures is studied by ThermoGravimetric Analysis (TGA) in non and isothermal conditions up to 1000 °C. The reaction of Cr2O3 with C12+O2 chlorination gas mixtures starts at about 550 °C and the reaction product is CrO2Cl2. The oxychlorination rate of Cr2O3 is almost proportional to the chlorine partial pressure and to the fourth root of the oxygen partial pressure in the chlorinating gas mixtures. At 800 °C, the maximum chlorination rate is obtained using a gas mixture having a C12/O2 ratio equal to 4. The apparent activation energy of the oxychlorination reaction of Cr2O3 is 87 and 46 kJ/mol at temperatures lower and higher than 650 °C, respectively. By varying the chlorine and the oxygen partial pressures of the oxychlorinating gas mixtures at temperatures higher than 550 °C, it is possible to extract selectively the chromium chlorinated compounds from the chromium bearing materials. a. Laboratoire Environnemem et Minéralurgie, BP 40, 54501 Vandceuvre, France, b. École Nationale Supérieure de Géologie, Rue du Doyen Marcel Rouhault, 54501 Vandoeuvre Cedex, France, c. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 3 rue Michel - Ange, 75794 Paris Cedex, France, d. Insritut National Polytechnigne do Lorraine, Rue de la Font de Haye. 54501 Vandceuvre Cedex, France.

Jan 1, 1997

By Yuanbo Zhang, Zhixiong You, Zijian Su, Bingbing Liu, Guanghui Li, Guang Yang, Tao Jiang

Sodium stannate is widely used in the electroplating and tin alloy industry. But the traditional processes for sodium stannate production are characterized by long flowsheet, high production cost and strict requirement for the equipments, etc. In this study, a novel process for sodium stannate preparation from cassiterite concentrate and sodium carbonate via roasting in CO/CO2 mixed gas then followed by leaching was developed. The effects of roasting parameters on the Sn leaching efficiency were conducted. A Sn leaching efficiency of 77.2% was obtained under the optimal conditions. Sodium stannate (Na2SnO3·3H2O) with a purity of 95.8% was produced by the new process, which is better than that specified for the industrial first-grade product.

Jan 1, 2014

By Lamar S. Todd

The direct production of metal from a sphalerite concentrate is an attractive route for primary zinc. A series of operations and conditions have been selected to efficiently cause the following overall exothermic reaction. The process uses a continuous circulation of molten copper for material and energy transfer between the unit operations. Sulfide concentrate is reduced with an excess of superheated copper to make a copper alloy and white metal. The alloy is stripped of volatile metals under vacuum and some metals can be separately condensed. The residual copper and the white metal are fed into a copper converter to be blown with oxygen for desulfurizing and the superheated copper is recycled. The paper will include a detailed material flow sheet for the process, discussion of the operating conditions of the individual units, behavior of minor elements, and zinc quality.

Jan 1, 1999

By Huimin Lu, Liyuan Zhao, Zhijiang Gao

The aluminum matrix composite reinforced by graphene was successfully fabricated using high pressure torsion (HPT). With only 0.5wt% graphene, the grain size was reduced to 100nm while that of pure Al was about 500nm. The hardness of the composite increased from the center (64HV) to the edge (120HV) of the sample. Moreover, the tensile strength of this composite reached 197MPa, while that of pure Al was 157MPa. The enhancement in mechanical properties was induced by grain refinement, load transfer from the matrix to the reinforcement and dislocations piled up at the grain boundaries.

Jan 1, 2015

By Richard W. Lawrence

Leaching of copper from sulfide minerals using biooxidation offers a potential route for copper recovery. Oxidation of . sulfide sulfur can proceed either; to sulfate or to elemental sulfur depending on mineralogy and process conditions. The advances in commercial application of biooxidation for sulfidic gold ores has made available operating and cost data which allow the derivation of conceptual costs for copper ore processing for comparison with conventional processing routes. Although costs for copper biooxidation generally remain high relative to conventional smelting, application might be competitive in specific cases. Biooxidation becomes more competitive in the general case if the cost ofS02 emissions in pyrometallurgical processing were to be internalized to a greater degree than currently required. This paper describes the technical aspects of biological processing of copper sulfide ores and concentrates, specifically with respect to the fate of sulfur. The environmental and economic implications of the biooxidation route are discussed in relation to conventional processing.

Jan 1, 1996

By Fumitaka Tsukihashi

Increasing amounts of steel scrap are being used as resources for steelmaking. Therefore, there has been a growing interest in the removal of harmful tramp elements such as antimony, zinc, tin, arsenic, bismuth, lead and copper from the molten steel. The problem that should be solved is the economic removal treatment of residual tramp elements in the steelmaking processes and the production of high quality steel by reducing the effect of the contaminated tramp elements and satisfying the environmental regulations. In this paper, the available thermodynamic data of the residual tramp elements in the molten steel arc summarized and the possibility of the removal of residual tramp elements from the molten steel is thermodynamically estimated.

Jan 1, 2003

By Tibor Zoltai

Asbestos is a generic term for industrially useful fibers recovered from exploitable deposits of the asbestiform varieties of five silicate minerals: chrysotile, anthophyllite, actinolite-tremolite, cummingtonite-grunerite, and riebeckite. Asbestos and asbestiformm fibers of some other minerals are known to be carcinogenic. Minerals crystallized in the asbestiform habit are characterized by unique properties (morphology, strength and flexibility, physical and chemical durability, and defect-free surface structures). The key to the unusual properties, and health effects, of asbestifarm fibers appears to be in their unusual surface structure. In contrast, non-asbestiform crystals of the same minerals, including the five so-called asbestos minerals do not have these properties and are not carcinogenic (1, 2).

Jan 1, 1989

Laminated ceramics have received widely scientific and commercial attention because their properties, such as mechanical properties and electrical properties, can be tailored by adjusting the structure, thickness and composition of the different layers. For example, ferroelectric Bi4T13O12 (BIT) which has a positive temperature coefficient of dielectric constant (TE) can be used to modify the negative of typical microwave dielectric ceramic BaNd2Ti4O12(BMT). However, BaNd2Ti4O12/Bi4Ti3O12/BaNd1Ti4O12 (BNT/BIT/BNT) laminated ceramics could not be prepared by the general method because the optimal sintering temperature of BaNd2Ti4O12 ceramic (around 1350°C was much higher than that of Bi4Ti3O12 ceramic (around /1100°C). in this research, a new method of spark plasma sintering (SPS) combined with post-sintering was successfully proposed to prepare BNT/BIT/BNT laminated divided proposed to prepare ceramics. It was divided into three steps. In first step, the BaNd2Ti4O12 ceramics were prepared by conventional sintering method. In second mop, the calcined and pre-pressed Bi4Ti3O12 powders were sandwiched between BaNd2Ti1O12 ceramic pellets and spark plasma sintered at 900'C for 10min to synthesize BNT/BIT/BNT composite ceramics. In the last step, a post-sintering was employed to reoxidize the partially reduced BNT/BIT/BNT composite ceramics. The results of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron probe mircoanalysis (EPMA) showed that BNT layer and BIT layer were well bonded and no significant interfacial infiltration between them was observed. The sandwiched BNT/B1T/BNT ceramic with 10.7% BIT in volume has a dielectric constant of 92.8, a low dielectric loss of 0.0068 and a small temperature coefficient of dielectric constant v/35 ppm/C at 1 MHz.

Jan 1, 2003