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INSTITUTE OF METALS DIVISION Ferrous and Nonferrous Physical Metallurgy (By-laws in Transactions, Vol 156, 1944) Established as a Division April 26, 1918 Walter A Dean, Chairman R. M. Brick, Past-Chairman Morris Cohen, Senior Vice-Chairman J H Scaff, Vice-Chairman Ernest Kirkendall, Secretary-Treasurer

Jan 1, 1952

By Henri S. Swolfs

INTRODUCTION In this paper we present preliminary results of a research program in site characterization methodology. We are interested in under- standing the response of discontinuous rock to mechanical, hydrologic, and thermal loadings. To carry out such a study we selected a field site with simple geology, uniform distribution of lithologies, and easily verifiable boundary conditions on temperature, fluid flow and stresses. The spatial distribution of fractures at the site was established and tests were conducted to determine the temperature field, hydrology, rock-mass properties, and in situ stresses. As part of the study selected borehole instruments were compared to assess their performance and reliability. SITE GEOLOGY The study area is in the eastern part of South Table Mountain, a mesa near Golden, Colo. The exposed cap rock is a single lava flow of uniform thickness (6-7 m) that rests on the clastic sediments of the Denver Formation (Van Horn, 1976). The surface of the cap rock (N. 75º E., 3º S.) is topographically featureless and slopes south- southeast; drainage is predominantly downdip and punctuated by occasional contact springs. The age of the lava flow is 64-65 m.y., or early Paleocene. Paleo- botanic evidence confirms the upper part of the Denver Formation as Paleocene (Van Horn, 1976). "Rapid-rock" analyses of core samples from the lava flow at three depths (0.2, 3.3, and 5.8 m) suggest a uniform chemical composition throughout with an increase in the Fe2O3/ FeO ratio (1.05 to 1.60) with increasing depth, reflecting the existence of a perched water table in the lava flow, To identify the rock

Jan 1, 1984

Flaubert, as we know, laid stress on the selection of the right word, le mot juste, the precise epithet, the word that belongs to the thing. A sentence, or even a paragraph, may be spoiled. by the use of a word that is not proper, that does not fit or is foreign to the meaning intended. An Australian mining expert is reported to have said: You have a property of considerable value, and what I saw warrants s good development of very rich cubicular galena, with gossan intermixed. 'Cubicular' means 'belonging to a small bedroom', a 'cubicle' being a sleeping compartment. He meant 'cubic', of course. This is a malapropism, and reminds me of the lady from Chicago that, on her return from Europe, said how much she had enjoyed the rural parts of France, because, among other things, it was "so delightful to hear the French pheasants singing the mayonnaise to the tune of the Los Angelus". It is impossible to amalgamate coal-tar thoroughly with the pulp in the agitating-tank. In metallurgy, 'amalgamate' refers to the combination of mercury with one or both of the precious metals, forming an amalgam, which is an alloy of mercury with another metal. It differs from other alloys, such as brass or bronze, in being made without the aid of heat, inasmuch as mercury is molten at the ordinary temperature. The word comes to us from the Greek through Old French and means 'something soft'. It is a mistake to use technical terms, having a specific meaning, for purposes that are foreign to that meaning. The writer of the quotation is not discussing any combination of metals; he is dealing with the physical process of mixing and is using 'amal-

Jan 1, 1931

By John E. O’Rourke, Kevin M. O’Connor, Pamela H. Rey

INTRODUCTION The resurgence of coal mining activity in the United States, brought on by the spiraling costs of fossil fw1 energy in the Seventies, has come at a time of intense public concern for the quality of the environment. Notwithstanding pressure on our economy to develop alternate sources of fue1 energy to the import of oil, the legislatures of several states have reacted to public concern over the environment by passing strict regulations aimed at con- trolling the subsidence effect s of underground mining. Agencies of the federal government charged with assistance to the mining industry, including the Department of Energy and the Bureau of Mines, have sponsored a number of instrumentation and field measurement projects aimed at the development of subsidence prediction models that can aid the mine operator's task of subsidence control. There are good empirical models developed in Europe for subsidence prediction, but they were made possible by a large body of mining-induced subsidence data collected there over a long period of time. No com- parable subsidence data base exists in the United States, and consequently empirical modeling of subsidence is not a realistic approach for our near term needs. Moreover, the geologic and topographic diversity of the several coal regions in the United States is expected to necessitate the development of several empirical models, each one expected to be relevant to its own region. Because of the time and costs that are likely to be involved in an empirical modeling approach, it is considered more expedient and cost effective to develop a general, mechanistic model for subsidence prediction purposes. In order to develop such a model, it is necessary to investigate and quantify the mechanics of the subsidence process from the mine level up to the ground surface. The series of projects discussed in this paper are designed to achieve this objective and include the following work: (1) the identification of geotechnical instrumentation that will pro- vide mine level overburden and surface subsidence data. (2) a field demonstration of selected instruments, and (3) documentation of case histories for complete subsidence mechanics, using the demonstrated and preferred instruments. An identification of feasible instrumentation and monitoring techniques was completed by Woodward-Clyde Consultants (WCC) in 1977 (O'Rourke and others). This paper discusses a demonstration of those instruments at a mine in Utah, and at two subsequent projects, currently underway at longwall mines in Colorado and West Virginia. 'he latter two projects when complete will provide documented case histories of subsidence mechanics. The process of optimizing subsidence instrumentation and monitoring techniques to the conditions encountered during installation and monitoring for these underground mines is shown to be an evolving one, and one which has had some notable successes to date. INITIAL DEMONSTRATION The initial design and demonstration of selected monitoring systems was carried out at the SUFCO No. 1 mine, near Salina, Utah. The instrumented panel was approximately 152 m wide. 640 m long. and was 290 m to 320 m deep. The mined height of coal. seam averaged 2.4 m. The mining method was room and pillar using continuous mining machines. This method allowed some monitoring of the supported condition during development, and eventually allowed monitoring of a caved system when both chain pillars and room pillars were extracted on retreat. The two instrument systems shown on Table 1 were selected from the earlier feasibility report for demonstration at SUFCO No. 1. Collectively, the two systems, one for a fully-supported mining method and the other for a fully-caved method, incorporate most of the instrumentation to be found within all five systems listed in the earlier feasibility report. The instrumentation includes surface, subsurface and mine monitoring installations. All of the SUFCO instruments selected to meet the specifications of the general instrument types listed on Table 1 were manually operated. That is, data from the installed system could only be obtained while a person was there to physically observe or operate the system readout. Automatic data recording equipment was available for some installations, but the objectives were to keep the systems as simple as possible for the demonstration project. A complete description of the surface, sub- surface and mine level instruments, and the demonstration project results are given in WCC (1982), and selected features are discussed in this paper.

Jan 1, 1982

JESSE L. JONES,* Pittsburgh, Pa.-I would like to ask Miss Erskine if down-draft has been used in any of the foundries where heavy fumes have to be removed, instead of the overhead draft.? L. -ERSKINE.-The system of overhead draft to remove heavy fumes has been very much more successful. The entire efforts of the New Jersey Department of Labor in regard to stabilizing conditions in the foundry are the result of the physical examination of the foundryman himself on first-hand information as to the prevalence of the minor ailments and the bad timekeeping that naturally accompanies them. These ailments are a factor in not only increasing the labor turnover but in increasing the percentage of bad work as well. The physical exertion of the foundryman himself is of course an important factor. In certain standard shops the amount of energy expended runs from 11 to 13 tons of foot-pounds of energy a day. In certain shops on piece work, I found a record of the energy expended per day to run as high as 22 tons. In one shop, during the war period, the management established a bonus system, and the men increased their output from 60 to 100 molds a day. The result was an increase of some 60 per cent. in output, and an increase of 400 per cent. in defective castings. The question of the physical exertion in the unsanitary foundries, of course, is very much complicated by other factors, for which reason the department has devoted a good deal of attention to estimating what is a reasonable exertion in a sanitary, well ventilated foundry. We have met certain physical difficulties in the brass foundries that the iron foundries did not have. All that information is available through our Bureau of Industrial Information. The question of the physical energy exerted by the molder is found to have a very distinct bearing on the question of contracts, for the possibility of increasing production is balanced by the extra overhead involved. JESSE L. JONES.-I would like to ask if any evidence has been noticed of carbon-monoxid poisoning among the employees of the foundries.

Jan 4, 1919

By P. G. Shewmon, H. E. Collins

We have studied the effect of adsorbed sulfur on the surface self-diffusion of copper using eight diflerent surface orientations and the grain boundary grooving method. The eight orientations studied were the four lying near the low-index surfaces—(loo), (Ill), and two directions in the (110)-plus four higher-index surfaces. Surface-diffusion measurements were made over a range of HZS concentrations (in Hz) from 3 to 1500 ppm between 830°and 1050°C. The results can be divided into two groups—Group 1 contains the two (110) surfaces while Group 2 contains the remaining six surfaces. In Group 1, increasing the temperature increases the effect of Hz S on DS for the Hz S range 5700 ppvn. Qs and Do increase with increasing H2S concentration in this Hz S range. Beyond this range, increasing the temperature decreases this effect on D,; also Q, and Do decrease. In Group 2, increasing the telnperature decreases the effect of H2 S on D, for the H2S range studied, and Qs and Do decrease with increasing Hz S concentration. In any study of surface phenomena, there invariably arises the question of the possible presence of and effect of adsorbed impurities. Such questions are well-founded since the presence of adsorbed atoms can sometimes produce marked changes in the kinetics of surface-energy-driven processes. In the last few years, values of the surface self-diffusion coefficient, D,, have been determined on a variety of metals by studying the decay of scratches or the growth of grain boundary grooves.L~3-L0~L3 Yet there has been relatively little work done in which the concentration of an adsorbed impurity was systematically varied and the effects observed. Work of this sort would provide some basis in fact for the assertions often made about the ro1.e of adsorbed impurities in the differences between the results of different workers in different atmospheres and on different metals. It also is relevant to those cases in which surface monolayers produce profound effects in commercially important processes. The most marked example of such effects is the ability of nickel or palladium to increase the sintering rate of tungsten by many orders of magnitude.' The aim of this work was to study the effect of sulfur partial pressures on the surface self-diffusion of copper. It was felt that this in conjunction with a study of the degree of adsorption and type of active sites involvedL8 would provide a wide range of data for one system and hopefully lead to some insight into the mechanism by which sulfur adsorption influences copper diffusion. The main reasons for choosing the Cu-S system were, first, faceting was reported not to accompany the adsorption of sulfur. This is required if our experimental technique is to work. Second, Oudar has determined a high temperature adsorption isotherm for this system, an event which puts the Cu-S system almost in a class by itself.I4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Initially, we considered studying the effect of an adsorbed impurity on surface self-diffusion of copper using isolated (or single) scratch smoothing as the technique and oxygen as the impurity. Copper was chosen as the material because the effects of orientation and anisotropy of the surface self-diffusion coefficient, D,, of copper in a dry hydrogen atmosphere had been studied extensively by Gjostein' and by Shewmon and ~hoi.~,~ The isolated scratch technique was chosen because both the effects of surface orientation and anisotropy of D, in a given surface could be easily studied with this method.~ Oxygen was tried as the impurity because Robertson and Shewmon""~ had studied its adsorption on copper at 1000°C over the range of oxygen partial pressures of 10"22 to 10-l3 atm. After several preliminary runs, it became evident that neither the scratch technique nor the impurity oxygen would be satisfactory for this work. Scratching deforms an annealed surface so that the region near the scratches recrystallizes, thereby disrupting the scratch profiles. One can avoid this by deforming the specimen sufficiently before scratching to give complete recrystallization on subsequent heating.4 However, as a result of Gjostein's success in scratching and annealing undeformed gold single crystals without local recrystallization,13 we attempted something similar with copper single crystals using a 0.7-mil diamond phonograph needle mounted in a Tukon hardness tester. All specimens recrystallized upon being annealed. Also, some copper specimens were sent to Gjostein to be scratched using his technique. The results were the same. As a result, the scratch technique was dropped in favor of the grooving of symmetric grain boundaries. Preliminary work using oxygen showed that faceting began to occur before oxygen adsorption had any measurable effect on D, at 938°C (at Pbo/P, = 0.12). Since heavy faceting would interfere with the measurement, we decided to use a sulfur-containing atmosphere (H2S/H2). Work by Oudar and Benard' and Robertson" showed that sulfur absorbed on copper and that faceting was not observed.

Jan 1, 1967

THE. extraordinary volume of work done in this period, and the multiplicity of subject matter, make a year-by-year historical account undesirable, if the account is not to be an assembly of unrelated fragments. We shall, instead, undertake to narrate the development in this period of each of the branches of the subject separately, hoping that their interrelations will be self-evident. There is a certain arbitrariness in the selection of subject matter in the following sections. The development of important engineering alloys-for example, high-speed steel-is disregarded, for it is the primary purpose of this account to relate the advances in ideas, the growth of the science of metals; other historical accounts relate these parallel advances. Nor are advances in techniques stressed, though occasionally the most important are noted; nor is the progress described in allied fields such as welding, cutting, etc.; for though these developments have very frequently made possible the advances herein related, they are far too numerous to recount in anything short of a ponderous volume. There is a more serious arbitrariness, however; it is not an easy matter to draw the boundaries of physical metallurgy, and some contiguous subjects have been omitted that perhaps should have been included, such as, for example, corrosion, gases in metals, the magnetic behavior of metals and alloys, and certain other fields in the physics of metals. REACTIONS IN ALLOYS--DIFFUSION Many of the reactions occurring in alloys proceed by the operation of the process of diffusion in the solid state: the annealing of mixed powders to form alloys, the homogenization of castings or forgings, the freezing of alloys, the treatment of clad metals, the loss

Jan 1, 1948

By E. K. C. Williams, Nathaniel Arbiter

INTRODUCTION The surface processes involved in preparing ores for flotation and for operations depending on their flocculation/dispersion characteristics * vary widely in agitation dependence. Most of the reagents used for these purposes are added to grinding circuits, pump sumps, launders, or directly to flotation cells with the turbulent flow conditions usually adequate both for mixing reagents and for surface reactions without special conditioners. However, some reagent systems do require specific control of agitation intensities and reaction times, the more important of these being the following: 1. Activation of ZnS with CuSO4. With the usual conditions pH about 10, with collector added with the CuSO4, Cu 2+ is almost completely precipitated as basic compounds and as collector salt. As a result the levels of reagent in solution are extremely low which probably accounts for the need for separate conditioning. The agitation intensities are at about the 0.01 HP/ton level.** 2. Flocculation with natural or synthetic polymers. In this case the agitation problem is two-fold; first, to insure adequate initial mixing of the viscous stock solution of the

Jan 1, 1980

By J. H. L. Vogt

TABLE OF COKTENTS. [ ]

Jan 1, 1902

By J. Blodget Britton

SIX different samples of anthracite, each a firm compact lump, were finely pulverized and immediately put in bottles. Portions of these were weighed and placed upon an ordinary water-bath and dried for one hour; the average loss was 1.24. The same portions were then placed in a hot-air oven, and for two hours kept at a temperature of 285' F., and, after cooling in a dry chamber, were again weighed, when there was found a further average loss of 1.22, making a total so far of 2.46. They were then immediately returned to the oven and for two hours more kept at a temperature of 530' F. and cooled and weighed again, when no further loss was found, but an average gain of .55 upon the previous weighing. The same portions were a third time placed in the oven and for about ten minutes kept at the last-mentioned temperature, and then, while still hot, were poured into one-quarter inch glass tubes, each with a bulb at one end, and heated over a Bunsen burner at a temperature below a red heat, when more water vaporized and condensed in small clear globules on the cold parts of the tubes. Fresh portions of the coals were then taken, and the total amount of water determined, and the average was found to be 3.04, or 1.80 more than was found at the temperature of the water-bath, which was perhaps a little below 212' F., and .58 more than at 285' F. Tests were afterwards made by placing other fresh portions of the

By F. R. Brotzen, L. D. Whitmire

Single crystals of high-purity molybdenum were de-formed at temperatures from 195°to 473°K, and the effect of deformation on the electrical resistivily was deler-mined. To separale the resislivity components of point and line defecls some cryslals were annealed at 473°K. The vale of resislivily increase wilh strain was nearly linear and was strongly dependent upon the deformation temperature. Point dejects are annealed out without any effect on the flow stress. At low temperatures the flow stress is a linear function of the square root of the resistivity increase attributable to dislocations. ELECTRICAL-resistivity measurements have been used successfully to gain information on structural changes in metallic materials. During plastic deformation the electrical resistivity rises because of electron scattering from newly created lattice defects. Such measurements lend themselves, therefore, to corroborating results from direct observation of lattice defects and, to a certain extent, to correlating defect densities and distribution with mechanical properties. Published information on research with single crystals of the bcc metals of Group VI, particularly molybdenum, is still limited. Yet, molybdenum single crystals of relatively high purity can be readily prepared by electron-beam-melting techniques. Furthermore, some valuable information on the defect structure of deformed crystals by direct observation is available. Lawley and Gaigher,1 for example, have examined dislocation configurations in deformed molybdenum crystals by means of transmission electron microscopy. Their results revealed that the dislocation density and distribution were strongly dependent upon the deformation temperature. These findings differed from those by Keh and weissmann,2 who found that the average dislocation density in polycrystalline iron deformed between 138° and 298°K depended only on the degree of strain and not on the deformation temperature. Martin3 and peiffer4 showed that point defects introduced in polycrystalline molybdenum by cold work can be eliminated by annealing at a relatively low tempera-ture. In view of their work it became apparent that resistivity measurements of suitably annealed crystals could disclose changes in their dislocation structure and contribute to the understanding of the work hardening of molybdenum crystals. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Crystals were grown by electron-beam zone melting5,6 of 0.062-in.-diam molybdenum rods (99.99 pct) supplied by General Electric Lamp and Wire Division, Dover, Ohio. The crystals, about 4 in. long, were prepared by using five zone-refining passes at a speed of about 6 mm per min in a vacuum of about 5 X l0-6 Torr. The resistivity ratio of the crystal, p(4.Z°K)/p(273°K), was generally near 10-3. These crystals were used as tensile specimens of uniform diameter in the "as-grown" condition. They were oriented for maximum shear on the (011)[111] slip system (Schmid factor >0.49). The specimens were held in spherically seated Templin-type grips so as to minimize bending. Samples were deformed on an Instron machine at a strain rate of about 5 X 10-5 sec-1 in an isopentane bath with dry ice at 195°K, in ice water at 273°K, and in a vegetable-oil thermostat at 373° and 473°K. The temperature in the latter was maintained constant within +2°K. Resistance measurements were carried out with a Kelvin double bridge. The resistance of the potential leads was kept low by using large-diameter wires outside the low-temperature bath. Many of the resistance data were checked by measurements made with an ac bridge. Current and potential leads were spot-welded to the specimens. The distance between the potential leads, about 3 in., was also considered to be the gage length for the strain measurements. Diameter and gage length of the samples were measured optically with an error of less than 2 pct. These measurements were used also to insure that the deformation had been uniform over the gage length of the specimen. Resistivity changes were then determined from the resistance measurements at 4.2°K assuming constancy of volume. In the course of a test, the crystal diameter, gage length, and resistance at 4.2°K were determined first in the initial state and subsequently for various amounts of elongation.

Jan 1, 1968

Jan 1, 1887

By Roy A. Lindgren

Since the year 1643, when the first blast furnace in America for treating iron ore was built at Saugus, Mass., out of mica schist quarried in the neighboring district, the procurement of a suitable refractory for furnace lining has been a problem of concern to the operators of furnaces. The stacks built of mica schist continued to smelt iron ore until about 1836, when, according to F. H. Norton, the first firebrick were produced1, at Queens Run, Pa. Other writers speak of brick having been molded and burned in Massachusetts about the year 1834. In 1841, Andrew Russell began to produce medium refractory plastic clay brick near East Liverpool, Ohio, that were used for lining blast furnaces1. The well-known Kentucky clay-producing district was not opened up until the year 1871, but since then it has produced a large percentage of the linings for iron blast furnaces. While some strides have been made by the refractories industry during the 100 years that have passed since the first firebrick were produced, it has been only during the last two decades that any real progress has been made towards bettering the product, even though the method of production had improved. Perhaps the fault lies with the user of the brick rather than with the producer, for not sooner demanding a superior product. During the past 15 years the tonnage produced per lining has increased from 500,000 gross tons to 1,000,000 gross tons, and now some furnaces are producing 1,600,000 gross tons and better on a single lining. It is true that enlarged capacity of furnaces and improved practice have accounted for some of this increase in tonnage, nevertheless better quality in firebrick must be given credit for its share. However, we are not yet ready to say that we have reached a maximum life of furnace lining. We believe that a better product can be produced and that the refractories industries of America will, through their extensive research depart-

Jan 1, 1937

By R. J. Charles, G. Agar

Experiments on single particles show that the amount of material created during impact that is finer than any chosen size is proportional to the energy of the impact. As the underlying principle of comminution, it might be stated that each unit of energy input to a given comminution system tends to add to the system an identical assembly of new particles and subtract an equivalent volume of larger particles. Thus, two of the consequences of the fact that each unit of energy tends to add identical assemblies of new particles to the system are: 1) on continued application of energy the total charge in any batch comminution system tends to assume the characteristics of this assembly, and 2) the process of comminution may be described by a relationship such as E = Ak-a. Recently Schuhmannl presented a theory of comminution which puts rational perspective on the extensive controversy surrounding most of the existent theories of comminution. With hindsight the origin of controversy can be ascribed to a relatively simple circumstance. In general, a progressive shift of a size distribution curve towards finer sizes is observed as energy is added to a comminution system. It is also observed that, with continued grinding, the size distribution curves usually change and appear to approach some constant shape. Inves-tigators generally felt that an appropriate method of relating and generalizing such data would be to consider the hypothetical case where particles in the system were uniformly subjected to comminution such that each of these particles, receiving its proportion of input energy, was transformed into a number of smaller particles of uniform size. Since the changes in shape of the size distribution curves during size reduction were clearly associated with the coarse particles in the system, it was also assumed that these changes accounted for little of the input energy and one could deal solely with the equilibrium shape towards which the size distribution curves tended. Although the unrealistic nature of the foregoing points of view was realized some justification was felt for such treatments since, in most cases, the resulting mathematical formulae could, by the adjustment of at most two parameters, satisfactorily describe experimental observation. Difficulties arose, however, in that the formulae required a specific influence of the feed size on the comminution process. In actual fact, the application of a feed size term in fitting experimental data was often found to be unnecessary or contrary to the above formulae. Secondarily, much discussion arose concerning the appropriate energy number that would relate the size change of one particle to the amount of comminution energy it received. As has been previously shown3 all the above theories that treat comminution as a continuous process of size reduction may be related to a proposition of the following form: dE = -Cfn [1] where dE is the increment of energy, dx is the size change, x is the particle size, and C and n are constants. It is now clear, as pointed out by Schuhmann, that Eq. 1 is inapplicable to comminution processes, since comminution cannot be considered other than as a discontinuous mixing process in which the overall size distribution of the product results from mixing, in various proportions, finished material with unfinished, and sometimes untouched, material. A striking illustration of this mixing phenomena may be obtained by comparing the size distributions of grinds in a typical batch ball mill with size distributions calculated on the basis of mixing various proportions of feed material with a ground material which obeys a power law size distribution relationship. Figs. la and lb illustrate such a comparison and the similarity of these figures indicates that mixing plays an important role in determining the overall shape of the product size distributions. Figs. la and lb illustrate, additionally, the underlying basis of the comminution theory presented by Schuhmann.' In the preliminary grinding of relatively close sized feed particles in a batch ball mill, one may visualize that, when a successful encounter of a ball with a feed particle occurs, then the particle undergoes severe size reduction and the size range in which the resultant particles reside is far removed from the size of the feed particles. After a number of feed particles are reduced by independent but similar impacts and one examines the size dis-

Jan 1, 1961

Meeting, Mar. 28, 1913.-The following Committees were appointed : Library ; Membership; Precious and Base Metals ; Papers and Publications ; Economic Geology ; Iron and Steel ; Increase of Membership; Stocking Pamphlets and Publications; and the following representatives: Joint Conference Committee of the four National Engineering Societies; General Committee in Charge of the International Engineering Congress, 1915. Delegates were appointed to attend the International Geological Congress and the Fifth Conservation Congress. These appointments are listed on pp. xxxvii. to xxxix.

Jan 4, 1913

By Arthur Wade

The most important development in connection with the search for oil in Australia during 1940 was on the legislative side. Prior to 1939 legislative enactments in the various states with regard to prospecting for petroleum were such as to prohibit large-scale effort and to bar the major oil companies from operating. The preparation of the Wade Model Bill for the Commonwealth Government in 1939 and the acceptance of the Bill in principle by all States, has gone far to remove these obstacles. Amending Acts, largely based on the Alodel Bill, have now been passed by all States with the exception of New South Wales and Tasmania. In New South Wales an Amending Bill is being drafted, while the Govern-ment of Tasmania is preparing to introduce an Amending Bill provided there is any demand for it. Noteworthy developments followed immediately on the passing of these Amending Acts. The Shell Company (1)1 and the Superior Oil Company of California (2) too$ up large areas in Queensland and com-menced work during 1940. Caltex acquired a big tract of country in the Kimberley district of Western Australia (3) and has made application for an area in the Territory of Papua. An Australian company, The Phoenix Oil Extraction Co., has obtained a permit to prospect over an extensive area bordering the south coast of Western Australia (4). Other developments are foreshadowed. The Shell Company is making an intensive examination of its area in Queensland (I). Geological, geophysical and aerial surveys are in progress. Caltex has three geological parties in the held in Western Australia while Superior Oil Company of California has done some geological work in the interior of Queensland (2). None of these concerns envisages a drilling campaign in the near future. Much exploratory work is necessary. Further work has been done by the companies that were already operating in 1939, though an important Australian company - Oil Search—has abandoned the work of prospecting in Australia. This company has subleased its holdings, at North West Cape in Western Australia (;), to Caltex on a royalty basis. The company also maintains its holdings in, and connection with, the Australasian Petroleum Company Proprietary Limited, which is a combination of Standard Oil (New Jersey), Anglo-Iranian and Oil Search. This company is operating in the territories of Papua and New Guinea. Drilling Victoria.—Although a good deal of drilling was done in the LaBes Entrance Tertiary Basin of Victoria (7), no appreciable production of oil was obtained. In order to test the extent and possibilities of the oil-bearing sand in this region, the Commonwealth and State Governments jointly put down six scout boreholes to depths of between 1200 and I500 it. The results were nega tive. A deeper exploratory horehole put down by the Governments at Seacornbe, or 26

Jan 1, 1941

By H. M. Howe

The chief purpose of this note is to call attention to the triaxial diagram as a convenient means of illustrating the properties of slags, and by this example of its use to commend it to those inclined to graphical studies having other possible applications. Explanation.—In the common or di-axial diagram, the properties corresponding to any point are determined by its perpendicular distance from each of two axes. For example, in an ordinary stress-strain diagram the properties of a given point in the curve are, first, a stress cd so many pounds per square inch, because its perpendicular distance from the horizontal axis of the diagram corresponds by the vertical scale to that stress; and second, a strain or elongation of so many per cent., because its perpendicular distance from the vertical axis corresponds by the horizontal scale to that elongation. It happens that, as a matter of convenience, we habitually place these two axes at right angles to each other; so that our measurenieilts happen to be made not only at right-angles to

Jan 1, 1899

By John Chipman

HE lecture on 'Thermodynamic Properties of Blast Furnace Slagso prepared in 1959 and published two years later required revision in one particular before it appeared in print. The activity of SiO, was deter mined through studies of the equilibrium: SiO, (in slag) 2C (graphite) = (in Fe) 2C0 (1 atm) The ratio for each experimental temperature was found from the heat of formation of cris-tobalite, the entropies and heat capacities of the re-actants, by virtue of the third law of thermodynamics. Discrepancies between several kinds of data led to investigations regarding other equilibria involving SiO, on the suspicion that there might be an error in the third-law value of its free energy. In particular the equilibrium: was restudied by Kay and Taylor who Confirmed the earlier results of Baird and Tayloron which their SiO, activities depended. The free energy of Sic was also rechecked4 independently. These and other equilibrium measurements led to the conclusion6 that the free energy of SiO, at high temperatures is in error and requires a correction of about -5 kcal. The exact source of the error is uncertain; it could lie either in the entropy of SiO, or in its heat of formation, but it more probably lies in the latter. Adjustment of this free energy lowers the ratio by a factor of approximately 4. Accordingly it will be necessary to multiply by this factor all of the SiO, activities determined by this method.',B Referring to the lecture cited, this correction should be applied in Figs. 8, 9, 10, 19, and 20. It applies also to the experimental data of Fig. 13, bringing these as well as those on the ternary system into good agreement with the work of Taylor and associates. At the same time it eliminates the discrepancy shown in Fig. 11, lowering both lines until the upper

Jan 1, 1962

Jan 1, 1891

By J. H. Nead

The subject of this paper is one to which there are many references in the literature on the manufacture of steel in the open-hearth furnace, but few actual experimental data have been published. For that reason, the presentation of results obtained from two open-hearth heats where attempts were made to measure the sulfur absorption will be of considerable interest and value. The two heats on which the experiments were made were Armco ingot-iron heats and differ from the usual open-hearth heat of medium- or mild-carbon steel in that the refining is carried further; in this product the carbon and manganese are reduced practically to traces. In most other respects, and especially in respect to the absorption of sulfur from the producer gas, the two heats are typical of usual open-hearth practice. The object of the experiments made on the first Armco iron heat was to determine the fluctuation of the composition of the metal bath and the slag throughout the course of the heat, with especial reference to the variations in sulfur. It was hoped to determine whether there was an increase in sulfur in the bath from the producer gas and if so at what stage in the process the increase occurred. The experimental method consisted of charging analyzed scrap and pig iron, so that the sulfur in the charge could be calculated. Then, throughout the duration of the heat, metal and slag samples were takcn every half hour, beginning as soon as there was enough molten metal to take a sample. These samples were analyzed; the results are given in Table 1. All domestic scrap was used and the charge was made up as follows: Head End Finish Pounds Pound Pig iron........................ 36,300 Pig iron....................... 23,900 Sheet scrap bundles............. 36,200 Sheet bars..................... 23,900 Sheet bm..................... 40;200 The total charge, exclusive of the re-pig added near the end of the heat, was 160,500 Ib. The limestone charged was 21,400 Ib., or 13½ per cent.

Jan 1, 1924