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By C. Schlumberger

IN the course of the past few years the authors and their associates have had different opportunities to study the electrical phenomena which accompany the oxidation of pipe lines. The causes of such phenomena are very similar to those which have been described under the name "spontaneous polarization" with reference to metallic orebodies,1 and can be investigated in the same manner. These investigations, however, until recently were of a scientific and theoretical character, and had not found any important practical application. During the year 1931, however, the authors treated several industrial corrosion problems for public utility companies. These problems usually had to be studied in towns or in densely populated areas, where it was well-nigh impossible, or very expensive, to dig pits and trenches in order to make electrical measurements on the pipe itself. The authors were thus led to evolve a method and apparatus permitting the study, from the surface, of the direction of the currents flowing from pipe lines. The purpose of the present paper is to discuss the results obtained in the course of these investigations. However, in consideration of the importance and interest of the work carried out by other scientists along the same lines, a separate chapter will be devoted to a summary of the results achieved up to the present time in the study of pipe line corrosion.

Jan 1, 1932

By James Boyd

REACTIVE metals are not only those sufficiently radioactive to be used as fuels, such as uranium and thorium, but all metals that will find application in power reactors. It is required of such metals that they be relatively inert or chemically unreactive, dimensionally stable at high temperatures and pressures, and either very absorbent of radioactivity or transparent to it. To gain the right perspective concerning these metals it is necessary at this point to explode some erroneous concepts propounded so often they have become accepted as fact. The first of these is that the great industrial nations, especially the U. S., have reached their pre-eminent position chiefly because they possess abundant mineral resources. Some U. S. mineral economists, echoed by the politicians, have taken this position so often that many of their theories and policies are based on the presence of developed mineral resources as a sine qua non to the country's greatness. Actually the reverse is true- under a social and political system granting free rein to the initiative and creativeness of its people, many hidden mineral resources that otherwise would have lain fallow have been developed into productive enterprises to the benefit of the national industrial economy. Again, once the proper incentive was furnished, other countries have also been able to establish valuable mineral enterprises in recent years; resources long dormant for lack of a proper economic environment suddenly have become valuable and productive. It is possible to name immediately several nations where such domestic economic developments have had favorable repercussions within the last decade. The absence of productive mines in any country is no indication that workable deposits do not exist within its territory.

Jan 11, 1957

By Andrew E. Nevin, Sidney A. Williams, James N. Lukanuski

Three porphyry copper districts in southern Arizona are partly overlain by post-ore fanglomerates with certain physical and petrologic characteristics which define a distinct and significant class of rock. These units are the Locomotive fanglomerate at Ajo, the Helmet fanglomerate at Twin Buttes-Mission-Pima, and the Cloudburst formation at San Manuel- Kalamazoo, herein termed “Locomotive-type fanglomerates.” Post-ore units at Poston Butte and Lakeshore, Ariz., and Sar Chesmeh, Iran, also appear to fit this class. Locomotive-type fanglomerates may be genetically related to porphyry copper deposits as subsequent products of differentiation, volcanism, uplift, and sedimentation in short-lived basins of limited areal extent. These units are sufficiently distinct to be utilized as exploration guides for porphyry copper deposits in the Southwestern U.S., northern Mexico, and elsewhere.

Jan 1, 1977

By A. R. Jr. Amos

LOG washers have been used for many years in the washing of clay iron ores, phosphate rock and manganese ores, but not until the past 15 years have they been employed to any extent in the preparation of aggregate materials and fluxing stone. For a machine of such importance where tenacious clay or soft rock must be eliminated, there are few data generally available. The purpose of this paper is to set forth the results obtained from several operations, together with a few suggestions for planning a specific installation. Where the material to be washed out consists of loose surface soil, silt, or small amounts of quickly soluble clay, there is little competition with other forms of washers, because greater power and maintenance are required for the operation of log washers, but where the foreign matter is a stiff clay, such as occurs with high-calcium limestones and in marginal gravel deposits, the ability of other kinds of washers to eliminate com-pletely the hard clay balls is at least uncertain. Then the log washer comes into its own field, for with the breaking and churning action of the logs it will clean out the toughest clay. Even with material from the hydraulic dredge, if it contains tough clay, the log washer is desirable unless the gravel is subjected to a costly soaking and rehandling process. Recently there has been a considerable development in other types of machines to accomplish these results but it is not within the scope of this paper to make comparisons between competitive types, but to present the best obtainable data on log washers only. From the primitive design that gave it its name, a long log hewn from a tree, with paddles forged to shape from strap iron and attached by lag screws, the log washer has gradually been developed to the present all-steel type. As now manufactured, the log washer consists essentially of two built-up logs on which are mounted a series of paddles, carried by shafts fitted at the ends of the logs on bearings fastened outside the enclosing steel box, or trough, which is set at an angle of about 5° to 10° and into which the material is fed. Stuffing boxes at the places where the shafts pass through the box at the lower end are equipped with water-

Jan 1, 1936

By A. R. Jr. Amos

LOG washers have been used for many years in the washing of clay iron ores, phosphate rock and manganese ores, but not until the past 15 years have they been employed to any extent in the preparation of aggregate materials and fluxing stone. For a machine of such importance where tenacious clay or soft rock must be eliminated, there are few data generally available. The purpose of this paper is to set forth the results obtained from several operations, together with a few suggestions for planning a specific installation. Where the material to be washed out consists of loose surface soil, silt, or small amounts of quickly soluble clay, there is little competition with other forms of washers, because greater power and maintenance are required for the operation of log washers, but where the foreign matter is a stiff clay, such as occurs with high-calcium limestones and in marginal gravel deposits, the ability of other kinds of washers to eliminate com-pletely the hard clay balls is at least uncertain. Then the log washer comes into its own field, for with the breaking and churning action of the logs it will clean out the toughest clay. Even with material from the hydraulic dredge, if it contains tough clay, the log washer is desirable unless the gravel is subjected to a costly soaking and rehandling process. Recently there has been a considerable development in other types of machines to accomplish these results but it is not within the scope of this paper to make comparisons between competitive types, but to present the best obtainable data on log washers only. From the primitive design that gave it its name, a long log hewn from a tree, with paddles forged to shape from strap iron and attached by lag screws, the log washer has gradually been developed to the present all-steel type. As now manufactured, the log washer consists essentially of two built-up logs on which are mounted a series of paddles, carried by shafts fitted at the ends of the logs on bearings fastened outside the enclosing steel box, or trough, which is set at an angle of about 5° to 10° and into which the material is fed. Stuffing boxes at the places where the shafts pass through the box at the lower end are equipped with water-

Jan 1, 1936

By M. R. J. Wyllie

Eight laboratory-prepared aqueous base drilling muds representing common mud types, and 15 aqueous base drilling muds sampled in the field, have been used in an experimental investigation of the relationship between the streaming potential developed across a mud filter cake and the differential pressure causing filtrate flow. It has been established that the relationship is of the form, ES = kPy, where Es is the streaming potential, P the differential pressure and k and y are constants for any particular mud system at constant temperature. Beyond a certain minimum thickness this relationship is independent of filter cake thickness. Experiment has shown that both k and y are temperature dependent parameters and that in certain mud systems there is a critical value of P above which the simple relationship Es = kPY ceases to hold. The constant k tends to be a function of the mud resistivity at 77ºF, but the exponent y has not been found to be related to any commonly measured mud property. Certain field experiments are described which serve to demonstrate that the total SP (self potential) developed opposite a formation may be quantitatively accounted for as the algebraic sum of an electrochemical potential and an electrokinetic potential. A chart to permit the simple use of mean solution activities in the interpretation of electrochemical SP data is given and its use described. Various field methods for computing the electrokinetic SP component of the total SP are considered and rejected as being unduly complicated and inaccurate. It is shown that the employment of low resistivity drilling muds is essential if optimum accuracy is desired in the use of the S.P. curve for the purpose of computing connate water salinities by the electrochemical SP method. The use of such low resistivity drilling muds is accordingly recommended. INTRODUCTION In a previous paper' a quantitative analysis of the electrochemical compovent of the SP (self potential) curve was made and it was shown that the electrochemical* emf, E, could be expressed as E = ZtRT/F In a,/a,, where t is the transference number of the chloride ion, R is the gas constant, T the absolute temperature of the formation water and mud, a, the mean activity of the connate water (assumed to be sodium chloride) and a, the mean activity of the mud (as sodium chloride). The essential accuracy of this expression was confirmed by an investigation 2 of the SP kicks opposite sands of known water salinity. The logs examined had been routine runs in oil wells in a number of Mid-Continent states. Further confirmation of the original analysis of the electrochemical SP is implicit in the paper by Tixier3 wherein a relationship between the SP and the ratio of connate water and mud resistivities, based only on field data, is given. Allowing for the fact that mud and connate water resistivities were used instead of activities, and that electrokinetic effects were ignored, the constant reported by Tixier is essentially 2tRT/F. The error involved in the universal substitution of resistivities for activities will receive further reference below. Possible reasons for the fact that the electrochemical properties of shales do not appear to be significantly dependent upon either the nature or the quantity of cation exchange materials, such as clays, they contain has been considered at some length by Wyllie and Patnode.4 In the same paper, the probable effects of shale thickness and compaction on electrochemical efficiency, and hence the inherent difficulty of obtaining reliable laboratory-scale data, were also pointed out. However, it is

Jan 1, 1951

By M. R. J. Wyllie

Eight laboratory-prepared aqueous base drilling muds representing common mud types, and 15 aqueous base drilling muds sampled in the field, have been used in an experimental investigation of the relationship between the streaming potential developed across a mud filter cake and the differential pressure causing filtrate flow. It has been established that the relationship is of the form, ES = kPy, where Es is the streaming potential, P the differential pressure and k and y are constants for any particular mud system at constant temperature. Beyond a certain minimum thickness this relationship is independent of filter cake thickness. Experiment has shown that both k and y are temperature dependent parameters and that in certain mud systems there is a critical value of P above which the simple relationship Es = kPY ceases to hold. The constant k tends to be a function of the mud resistivity at 77ºF, but the exponent y has not been found to be related to any commonly measured mud property. Certain field experiments are described which serve to demonstrate that the total SP (self potential) developed opposite a formation may be quantitatively accounted for as the algebraic sum of an electrochemical potential and an electrokinetic potential. A chart to permit the simple use of mean solution activities in the interpretation of electrochemical SP data is given and its use described. Various field methods for computing the electrokinetic SP component of the total SP are considered and rejected as being unduly complicated and inaccurate. It is shown that the employment of low resistivity drilling muds is essential if optimum accuracy is desired in the use of the S.P. curve for the purpose of computing connate water salinities by the electrochemical SP method. The use of such low resistivity drilling muds is accordingly recommended. INTRODUCTION In a previous paper' a quantitative analysis of the electrochemical compovent of the SP (self potential) curve was made and it was shown that the electrochemical* emf, E, could be expressed as E = ZtRT/F In a,/a,, where t is the transference number of the chloride ion, R is the gas constant, T the absolute temperature of the formation water and mud, a, the mean activity of the connate water (assumed to be sodium chloride) and a, the mean activity of the mud (as sodium chloride). The essential accuracy of this expression was confirmed by an investigation 2 of the SP kicks opposite sands of known water salinity. The logs examined had been routine runs in oil wells in a number of Mid-Continent states. Further confirmation of the original analysis of the electrochemical SP is implicit in the paper by Tixier3 wherein a relationship between the SP and the ratio of connate water and mud resistivities, based only on field data, is given. Allowing for the fact that mud and connate water resistivities were used instead of activities, and that electrokinetic effects were ignored, the constant reported by Tixier is essentially 2tRT/F. The error involved in the universal substitution of resistivities for activities will receive further reference below. Possible reasons for the fact that the electrochemical properties of shales do not appear to be significantly dependent upon either the nature or the quantity of cation exchange materials, such as clays, they contain has been considered at some length by Wyllie and Patnode.4 In the same paper, the probable effects of shale thickness and compaction on electrochemical efficiency, and hence the inherent difficulty of obtaining reliable laboratory-scale data, were also pointed out. However, it is

Jan 1, 1951

By Milton Williams

A comparison is made between the amount of interstitial water found by analysis in cores and that estimated from the resistivity curve of the electric log for the corresponding strata of producing reservoirs. It is shown that while the determined and the estimated water saturations are in good agreement in some cases, this agreement may be due to a fortuitous compensation of errors. Estimates of water saturations made from the electric 1og by use of existing relations should, therefore, be employed with caution. Also presented are data on the variation of salinity of interstitial waters in reservoir sands, and on the effect of variation of salinity and porosity on the validity of estimates of water content made from the electric log. INTRODUCTION Throughout the history of electric logging there have been recurrent cycles of optimism and pessimism as to the value of the electric log in the quantitative estimation of reservoir fluid content. The very early days of electric logging were an optimistic period, in which there was widespread faith in the ability of the resistivity curve to reflect fluid content, and in the ability of the potential curve to indicate textural characteristics. In time the accumulation of exceptions to this idealistic behavior brought about a general disillusionment, and caused the more pessimistic of those dealing with electric logs to believe that the sole importance of the log lay in stratigraphic correlation. Within the last several years optimism as to the quantitative use of the electric log has been revived, primarily as the result of the stimulating work of C. E. Archie' on the estimation of interstitial water in sands from resistivity data. Even though the general trend of thought on the quantitative value of the electric log reflects optimism, it is inevitable that there are some widely divergent opinions of the validity of quantitative estimates based on the electric log. A valid method of estimation of fluid content by means of the electric log and a general knowledge of the textural character of the reservoir rock would be of signal importance, not only in that it would save time and money in securing information on reservoirs now being drilled, but also because it would permit the evaluation of reserves in many fields drilled without adequate core data subsequent to the advent of electric logging. Because of this importance, Humble's Production Research Division, in cooperation with various other company divisions, initiated several years ago series of tests designed to evaluate the reliability of estimates of fluid content made from the electric log. The investigation was limited at the outset to sand reservoirs, since it was felt that the inclusion of limestone reservoirs would entail needless complications. In devising these tests it was immediately apparent that the chief difficulty in evaluating the worth of any method of estimation lay in establishing the true value of fluid content. The results of direct analyses of cores cut with ordinary mud were not sufficient, because of the probability of contamination of the fluids by filtrate from the drilling mud; the results of restored state tests on cores were deemed unsuitable because these results can hardly be said to furnish a primary standard. The method adopted was the direct analysis of cores cut with an oil-base drilling fluid. Such cores, when properly handled, are believed to afford the most precise determination of water content available at the present, and, in addition, lend themselves readily to the determination of various other properties which are pertinent to the estimation of fluid content from the electric log. Since it was desired to compare the fluid contents estimated from the electric log run in ordinary mud with cores cut in the same hole, the use of oil-base fluid necessitated the changing over, after all cores were cut, to a conventional mud. This procedure presented several advantages, one of which was that the use of oil-base fluid permitted

Jan 1, 1950

By H. G. Doll

An earlier paper on the general subject of the SP log has analyzed the limitations of that log, in particular when dealing with thin permeable beds enclosed in thick highly resistive ones. Under such conditions, the SP log does not give a good definition of the permeable beds. Selective SP logging is a new method which gives an accurate determination of the permeable beds; even in highly resistive formations, except when the salinity of the mud is extremely high. It also permits a close approxi. mation of the static SP to be obtained. The method consists generally in controlling the potential of auxiliary electrodes located in the drill holes in the vicinity of the measuring electrode. In this manner. the flow of SP current along the drill hole is modified to counterbalance the effect of highly resistive strata. Several procedure; and arrangements used to record selective SP curves and static SP curves are explained. Field examples illustrating these methods are given and discussed. INTRODUCTION In an earlier paper,' the shape of the SP curves and the amplitude of the SP peaks were analyzed, considering how the circulation of the SP current is influenced by the subsurface media as a function of their geometrical configuration and their resistivities. It was shown, in particular. that the permeable beds situated between highly resistive formations are sometimes indistinctly indicated by the deflections of the SP log. It is the purpose of this paper to dircuss a new method now being developed, namely selective SP logging, whose principal feature is to enable a more accurate determination of the depths of the permeable beds present in highly resistive formations, such as occur in limestone fields. It will be shown also how an addi-tional curve called the static SP log can be derived from the selective SP log, or recorded directly, to facilitate the interpretation. Another purpose of the static SP log is to provide an approach toward the determination of the value of the static SP, where this value is not readily given by the SP log. This application. although less important at the present time than that mentioned above, nevertheless is of interest, inasmuch as, according to laboratory and field experiments conducted by several investigators, the determination of oil saturation of reservoirs from the data of the electric log implies the knowledge of the resistivity of the connate water,2,3 to which the static SP seems to be related.4,5,6,7 PRINCIPLE OF SELECTIVE SP LOGGING The method of selective SP logging of the formations traversed by a bore hole consists in recording two curves under the following conditions: The measuring device comprises one measuring electrode M and two additional electrodes G-G', connected to each other. located above and below

Jan 1, 1950

By Robert E. Bush, E. S. Mardock

The objective of this paper is to present practical methods of applying radioactivity logs to problems of interest both to those engaged in evaluating fundamental reservoir data as well as to those engaged in subsurface structural work. The basic theories underlying the operation of radioactivity logging methods are briefly discussed along with some of the problems arising in the interpretation of the log. Relative methods of quantitative interpretation are described, with a discussion of relative reference lines and specific examples are given showing the application of these relative quantitative interpretation methods. To show the variation of the methods described, specimen wells penetrating formations widely divergent in point of geologic age were selected to demonstrate the application. A relative reference line is determined for the Neutron Curve and by comparison to known petrophysical data such as porosities from diamond cores, a direct quantitative relationship is developed. The application of this relative calibration curve to logs of unknown wells will permit a reasonably accurate determination of porosity in limestone and dolomite formations. Specific examples are given showing the application of these relative methods of interpretation to logs of the Smackover limestone in Louisiana, the Edwards limestone and dolomites of South Texas, and Permian dolomites of West Texas. Radioactivity logs have been used extensively by the petroleum industry for a number of years and recognition of their value has grown steadily, not only as tools to aid in the solution of specific stratigraphic problems, but also as potential sources of the basic data necessary for the estimation of net pay and reserves. The value of radioactivity logs for stratigraphic work has been pointed out in the literature,1,2,4,5,6 and now has long been recognized by the industry, but the quantitative application of the logs has advanced but little beyond the stage of a strong conviction that radioactivity logging curves will some day provide the information on such important quantities as the porosity and the liquid saturation of the formations. During the past few years the staffs of the Lane-Wells Company and Well Surveys, Incorporated, have devoted a great deal of time, thought, and experimentation to the relationships existing between radioactivity curves and the lithologic conditions encountered, and this paper is, in a manner of' speaking, intended as a progress report of this work and includes suggestions which the authors have found useful in the interpretation of radioactivity logs. The section on theory is not intended as a complete exposition of the physical processes involved, but rather as a brief introduction to the reader of these processes so that he may acquire a better understanding of the behavior of the radioactivity curves under the varied conditions encountered in normal well logging. Three relative methods for using neutron logs for the quantitative estimation of porosity in limestone or dolomite are presented. These methods are based on the comparison of logs and porosity data from wells in Louisiana, South Texas, West Texas, and New Mexico. These areas were selected because not only were there more core data available from these areas but also the majority of these data were from limestone or dolomitic zones. The correlation between core data and logs is simpler for limestones and dolomites than it is for sandstones due to the fact that sandstones are more complex than limestones and differ more widely among themselves as to composition of cementing materials, siltiness, etc. When data applicable to the various types of sandstones are available, the authors hope to present a discussion similar to this paper covering sandstones or possibly a more general discussion covering all types of reservoir rocks. The relative methods for estimating porosity which are presented in this paper fall short of the absolute method sought. However, these methods possess the advantage that they can be applied to almost any neutron log as long as the range of application is held within the limits imposed by the local lithologic conditions which prevailed during calibration, i.e., these methods are for short range application only. THE THEORETICAL BASIS FOR RADIOACTIVITY LOGGING The two redioactivity logging curves commercially available today are the

Jan 1, 1950

By M. R. J. Wyllie, Walter D. Rose

The use of electrical well logs for the quantitative determination of such reservoir parameters as connate water saturation, formation permeability and connate water salinity has recently been attracting the attention of a number of workers1,2,3,4,5. While the theory of the determination of connate water salinity from the self potential S.P. log has received rather detailed treatment, relatively little attention has been paid to the theoretical aspects involved in the quantitative interpretation of resistivity data. It is clear that if electrical well logs can be used for the quantitative evaluation of physical characteristics of reservoir rock, they will provide a valuable tool to supplement cheaply information obtained by more laborious core analysis. In certain cases it is conceivable that the coring program could be considerably curtailed if the electric log could be relied upon to give reasonably accurate quantitative information. It is our object in this paper to examine the theoretical basis of quantitative log interpretation as expressed in such well-established logging concepts as formation factor and cementation factor. It is also our object to investigate the physical aspects of the rela- tionship which is presumed to exist between resistivity index and brine saturation in reservoir rock. In particular, we will endeavor to draw attention to the fact that it is possible to express these logging concepts in terms of capillary pressure-saturation relationships, permeability and tortuosity, parameters which we will consider in this paper to be fundamentally indicative of rock texture. The probability of being able to obtain from log recordings alone the data theoretically essential to permit quantitative log interpretatiou will be examined, and consideration will also be given to the problem of formulating simple semi-empirical relationships for use in the field. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS The concept of formation resistivity factor, or as it is now commonly called, formation factor, appears to have been introduced by G. E. Archie",". Formation resistivity factor as defined by Archie is the resistivity of a rock 100 per cent brine-saturated divided by the resistivity of the brine. This relationship had previously been used by physical chemists and the concept is, for example, implicit in an early treatment by Fricke7 of the conductivity of aqueous slurries. Archie was able to establish the fact that although the relationship between formation factor and porosity did not change too greatly for different rock textures, the relationship between formation factor and permeability was markedly dependent on rock texture. The relationship found by Archie between formation factor and porosity was expanded by H. Guyod8. Archie had suggested that the formation factor, F, could be expressed in terms of the porosity, F, as follows: F =F-m .... (11 where, F = effective porosity fraction of the sand, and, m = an exponent greater than about 1.3. Guyod introduced the term cementation factor for the exponent, m, since it may be qualitatively shown that formation factor for any given porosity tends to increase as the sand becomes more cemented. It would appear that the concept of m as an exponent representing the cementation in a sand is strictly only of qualitative value, since the quantitative estimation of m by means other than the determination of F and F has not been possible. Guyod suggests that m can be estimated from a visual examination of a sample of rock, but this method appears to be both arbitrary and unreliable. It can be said, however, that in intergranular reservoirs of practical interest, the range of m is from about 1.4 to 3.0. A possible explanation for the fact that m is found to lie between these limits will be offered below. The determination of formation factor is an essential preliminary to the

Jan 1, 1950

By Walton J. Greer, System By John E. Owen

The guard electrode system measures the resistivity of formations by employing a thin disk of current which is caused to flow perpendicular to the bore hole. The control of this current disk is obtained in a brute force manner through the use of relatively long equipotential electrodes above and below the measuring electrode. The log obtained from the system is free of "lag," "plateau," "shadow," "reflection" and other distortions evident on conventional logs. The proportionate contributions of the hole size and invaded zone resistivity to the apparent resistivity reading are reduced when the mud and filtrate resistivities are lower. Thus, the guard system favors the use of conductive muds. The mathematical development of the theory is given in an appendix. Equations are derived to evaluate the effects of mud resistivity, hole size, invaded zone resistivity and depth, and the true formation resistivity. Sample logs from several provinces are reproduced and compared with conventional electric logs to illsutrate the much greater detailed lithology that can be presented by the guard electrode system. INTRODUCTION With increased ability of those in the petroleum industry to analyze formation characteristics from electrical resistivity data, there has become apparent the need for more precise measures of that parameter. The measurement of the resistivity of a homogeneous and isotropic material can be made simply when the body of the material is infinite in all dimensions and the measuring electrodes can be placed within the body. In such a case, the current leaving an electrode follows a spherical distribution and the mathematical expression for the potential level at any distance from that electrode can readily be derived.'.' If it is considered that the active electrodes are within a bore hole filled with mud of a resistivity different from that of the formation. the current does not flow in a spherical pattern near the current source or sink, and the calculations of potential levels become more difficult. The additional consideration of a section of formation invaded by mud filtrates, and thus having resistivity different from either that of the mud, the adjacent formations or of the undisturbed formation, makes the mathematical problem extremely complex. Should the vertical dimensions of the formations be considered as finite. the problem becomes so complex as to preclude reasonable solution. Yet, even these considerations have not described adequately the conditions encountered in a large proportion of the wells to be studied. In efforts to evaluate the effects of the various conditions. combinations of twn, three. and four electrode logging con- figurations of the conventional types have been used. The resulting logs have left much to be desired in some provinces. It has become apparent that the use of such configurations will not result in adequate measurements being made, particularly in cases where the formation is composed of thin sections. If all the current of a resistivity measuring circuit is made to flow through the formation opposite the exploring electrode, many of the shortcomings of the conventional measuring system are eliminated. In the guard electrode method of electrical well logging to be discussed in this paper, the current is so controlled by causing it to flow in a thin disk normal to the axis of the logging tool. EARLY HISTORY The guard electrode method of electrical well logging in its early years was a joint development by the Geophysical Research Corp. and the Amerada Petroleum Corp. The method was first experimentally investigated by means of model studies. The results of these studies indicated that current focusing systems properly applied to electrical well logging

Jan 1, 1951

By System By John E. Owen, Walton J. Greer

The guard electrode system measures the resistivity of formations by employing a thin disk of current which is caused to flow perpendicular to the bore hole. The control of this current disk is obtained in a brute force manner through the use of relatively long equipotential electrodes above and below the measuring electrode. The log obtained from the system is free of "lag," "plateau," "shadow," "reflection" and other distortions evident on conventional logs. The proportionate contributions of the hole size and invaded zone resistivity to the apparent resistivity reading are reduced when the mud and filtrate resistivities are lower. Thus, the guard system favors the use of conductive muds. The mathematical development of the theory is given in an appendix. Equations are derived to evaluate the effects of mud resistivity, hole size, invaded zone resistivity and depth, and the true formation resistivity. Sample logs from several provinces are reproduced and compared with conventional electric logs to illsutrate the much greater detailed lithology that can be presented by the guard electrode system. INTRODUCTION With increased ability of those in the petroleum industry to analyze formation characteristics from electrical resistivity data, there has become apparent the need for more precise measures of that parameter. The measurement of the resistivity of a homogeneous and isotropic material can be made simply when the body of the material is infinite in all dimensions and the measuring electrodes can be placed within the body. In such a case, the current leaving an electrode follows a spherical distribution and the mathematical expression for the potential level at any distance from that electrode can readily be derived.'.' If it is considered that the active electrodes are within a bore hole filled with mud of a resistivity different from that of the formation. the current does not flow in a spherical pattern near the current source or sink, and the calculations of potential levels become more difficult. The additional consideration of a section of formation invaded by mud filtrates, and thus having resistivity different from either that of the mud, the adjacent formations or of the undisturbed formation, makes the mathematical problem extremely complex. Should the vertical dimensions of the formations be considered as finite. the problem becomes so complex as to preclude reasonable solution. Yet, even these considerations have not described adequately the conditions encountered in a large proportion of the wells to be studied. In efforts to evaluate the effects of the various conditions. combinations of twn, three. and four electrode logging con- figurations of the conventional types have been used. The resulting logs have left much to be desired in some provinces. It has become apparent that the use of such configurations will not result in adequate measurements being made, particularly in cases where the formation is composed of thin sections. If all the current of a resistivity measuring circuit is made to flow through the formation opposite the exploring electrode, many of the shortcomings of the conventional measuring system are eliminated. In the guard electrode method of electrical well logging to be discussed in this paper, the current is so controlled by causing it to flow in a thin disk normal to the axis of the logging tool. EARLY HISTORY The guard electrode method of electrical well logging in its early years was a joint development by the Geophysical Research Corp. and the Amerada Petroleum Corp. The method was first experimentally investigated by means of model studies. The results of these studies indicated that current focusing systems properly applied to electrical well logging

Jan 1, 1951

By H. G. Doll

A new electrical logging method called Laterolog is described which provides for better recording of formation resistivity. In this method a current, preferably of constant intensity, is forced into the formation perpendicularly to the wall of the hole as a sheet of predetermined thickness by means of a special electrode arrangement and of an autonlatic control system. The essential advantages of the Laterolog over the regular resistivity logs are explained. With the Laterolog, the mud column has much less influence than with conventional methods. The Laterolog is, therefore. particularly useful in wells drilled with highly conductive mud. Moreover. when the electrode system is located opposite a bed of moderate or small thickness, the disturbing effect of the adjacent formations becomes practically eliminated, provided the bed is thicker than the sheet of current. which itself is usually a few inches to a few feet thick. The sequences of beds are. therefore, much more sharply differentiated, and, in many cases, it is possible to read directly from the logs values close to the true resistivities of the formations without further corrections. Field examples are shown to illustrate the results of the method in various types of formations. INTRODUCTION As soon as it was introduced into the petroleum industry, electrical logging roved to be a powerful instrument for the delineation of the strata traversed by bore holes and for correlation of such strata." Research and engineering efforts were mostly devoted at this early time to the design of the techniqurs which could provide the best data for these purpoes. Later, attention was directed toward the quantitative analy5i.s of electrical logs, in order to obtain information on. reservoir characteristics, and, in particular, on oil and water saturation.3,4 Efforts have been made, accordingly, with a view to improving the already existing methods, or to finding new methods which could satisfy these new requirements." Quantitative analysis implies a determination as accurate as possible of the true resistivity of the formations. In fact, however; the "apparent resistivity" recorded in front of a given bed by a conventional electrical logging method is frequently quite different from the true resistivity of this bed. This is due to the combined influence of the mud column, of the adjacent formations both above and below the bed, and of the invaded zone, in which the original fluid has been more or less replaced by mud filtrate. When the beds are thick enough, and, as is frequently the case in sand and shale formations, when their resistivity is not much greater than that of the mud, it is generally possible to obtain their true resistivity directly on the electric log, or at least to obtain an approximate value which can be corrected without undue difficulty by means of recently published charts known as "departure curves."" When the beds are thin, and particularly when, in addition. their resistivity is substantially greater than that of the mud column, the apparent resistivities recorded on conventional logs are seriously affected, and it is generally very difficult, if at all possible, to estimate their true resistivity with a good enough accuracy. In the most severe cases, such as are encountered in holes drilled through hard formations with muds of high salinity, the conventional logs are so distorted and rounded that they do not even show clearly the houndaries of the different beds. In order to overcome the effect of the mud column and of the adjacent formations, it is possible to make use of appro. priate systems whereby the measurements involve a comp3ratjvelv thin slice of space at the level of the measuring device. A mention is due, in this respect, to a measuring system. called the "guarded electrode;" invented by C. Schlumberger over 20 years ago. The system, schematically represented in

Jan 1, 1951

By H. G. Doll

A new electrical logging method called Laterolog is described which provides for better recording of formation resistivity. In this method a current, preferably of constant intensity, is forced into the formation perpendicularly to the wall of the hole as a sheet of predetermined thickness by means of a special electrode arrangement and of an autonlatic control system. The essential advantages of the Laterolog over the regular resistivity logs are explained. With the Laterolog, the mud column has much less influence than with conventional methods. The Laterolog is, therefore. particularly useful in wells drilled with highly conductive mud. Moreover. when the electrode system is located opposite a bed of moderate or small thickness, the disturbing effect of the adjacent formations becomes practically eliminated, provided the bed is thicker than the sheet of current. which itself is usually a few inches to a few feet thick. The sequences of beds are. therefore, much more sharply differentiated, and, in many cases, it is possible to read directly from the logs values close to the true resistivities of the formations without further corrections. Field examples are shown to illustrate the results of the method in various types of formations. INTRODUCTION As soon as it was introduced into the petroleum industry, electrical logging roved to be a powerful instrument for the delineation of the strata traversed by bore holes and for correlation of such strata." Research and engineering efforts were mostly devoted at this early time to the design of the techniqurs which could provide the best data for these purpoes. Later, attention was directed toward the quantitative analy5i.s of electrical logs, in order to obtain information on. reservoir characteristics, and, in particular, on oil and water saturation.3,4 Efforts have been made, accordingly, with a view to improving the already existing methods, or to finding new methods which could satisfy these new requirements." Quantitative analysis implies a determination as accurate as possible of the true resistivity of the formations. In fact, however; the "apparent resistivity" recorded in front of a given bed by a conventional electrical logging method is frequently quite different from the true resistivity of this bed. This is due to the combined influence of the mud column, of the adjacent formations both above and below the bed, and of the invaded zone, in which the original fluid has been more or less replaced by mud filtrate. When the beds are thick enough, and, as is frequently the case in sand and shale formations, when their resistivity is not much greater than that of the mud, it is generally possible to obtain their true resistivity directly on the electric log, or at least to obtain an approximate value which can be corrected without undue difficulty by means of recently published charts known as "departure curves."" When the beds are thin, and particularly when, in addition. their resistivity is substantially greater than that of the mud column, the apparent resistivities recorded on conventional logs are seriously affected, and it is generally very difficult, if at all possible, to estimate their true resistivity with a good enough accuracy. In the most severe cases, such as are encountered in holes drilled through hard formations with muds of high salinity, the conventional logs are so distorted and rounded that they do not even show clearly the houndaries of the different beds. In order to overcome the effect of the mud column and of the adjacent formations, it is possible to make use of appro. priate systems whereby the measurements involve a comp3ratjvelv thin slice of space at the level of the measuring device. A mention is due, in this respect, to a measuring system. called the "guarded electrode;" invented by C. Schlumberger over 20 years ago. The system, schematically represented in

Jan 1, 1951

By H. G. Doll

A new electrical logging method is described which measures the resistivity of small volumes of material near and behind the wall of the bore holes. The very small electrode systems used are supported in the face of the flexible insulator pad of appropriate dimension maintained in contact with the wall. The measurements are recorded simultaneously with two different electrode spacings. This method provides a very detailed record of the formations and particularly of the permeable beds traversed by the bore holes. The application of MicroLog to the location of permeable zones within compact formaltions, such as limestone, and to the determination of the amount of sand existing in sequences of thin shale and sand streaks is discussed. The possibility of quantitative determination, providing a step toward the evaluation of formation porosity and mud cake thickness, is also examined. Field examples illustrate the essential features of the method. INTRODUCTION In conventional electrical logging, the spontaneous potential (SP) log is used to delineate the permeable beds, and the resistivity logs are used primarily to provide indications concerning the fluid content of the beds. When the formations are much more resistive than the mud, as happens, for example, in limestone fields, the SP currents are short-circuited by the more conductive mud column, with the result that the SP log is quite rounded. In that case, the SP log generally gives the approximate location of the permeable formations but it cannot be used for an accurate determination of the boundaries of each permeable bed.' Solutions for the problem of obtaining a better determination of the permeable beds in limestone fields were developed from two angles. One approach consisted in improvements to the logging of the SP, as given by Selective SP logging and Static SP logging. These new methods, which have been described in an earlier paper,' give good results when the mud is not too salty, but they are still in a somewhat experimental stage, mostly because the development efforts have lately been concentrated on another approach to the problem, i.e., the MicroLog.

Jan 1, 1950

By M. R. J. Wyllie, H. W. Patnode

In the quantitative interpretation of electric log data it is essential to know the formation factor, defined as the ratio of the resistivity of the formation 100 per cent saturated with brine to the resistivity of the brine.' This concept implies that the formation factor for any given rock is constant irrespective of the resistivity of the brine or solution with which it is saturated. It is apparent that this can be true only when the rock matrix is wholly non-conductive. As reservoir rocks may contain clay or shale having an appreciable conductance one may expect these constituents to influence the determination of true formation factor. The formation factor may be theoretically derived from log data by dividing the resistivity of the mud filtrate invaded formation by the resistivity of the mud filtrate. Such a method of calculntion has implicit in it the assumption that the fluids in the invaded formation are wholly replaced by mud filtrate. that the solid matrix is non-conducting, and that the formation factor of the invaded zone is identical with the formation factor of the uninvaded zone. Since the validity of the first two basic assumptions regarding the insulating character of porous matrices and the displacement of the interstitial fluids in porous media do not appear to be fully established, the formation factors of a number of cores and clay slurries have been measured under conditions suitable for verifying the assumptions and the extent of any errors inherent in them. CORE STUDIES Apparatus and Procedure Resistivity measurements were made on short cylindrical permeable cores which had been previously mounted in lucite.2 The cores were clamped by means of insulated bolts between brass plates about 5 cm square and 1 cm in thickness. The plates were provided with a ring seal to prevent leakage between them and the core mount, and had a centrally located orifice so that fluids could be flowed through the mounted core. The brass mounting plates were used as electrodes and any current flow between them necessarily passed only through the constituents of the intervening core. Fluid saturation of the core, and fluid flow through the core, were effected by a centrifugal pump connected to the outflow end of the core, thus providing a differential pressure across the core of approximately one atmosphere. The procedure used was first to evacuate each core by means of the pump and then to saturate the core with an aqueous sodium chloride solution of known resistivity. The resistance of the core was measured and flow of the solution through the core continued for sufficient time to establish a constant resistance reading. After equilibrium had been reached with one solution, another sodium chloride solution of a different resistivity was flowed through the core and the flow continued until a constant resistance reading was again obtained. This procedure was continued until resistance measurements of the core had been made with a series of solutions within a salinity range from 1.0N NaCl to distilled water. The data obtained enabled the apparent formation factor of given porous rocks when saturated with fluids of different resistivity to be computed and also provided information regarding the ability of an invading fluid to displace interstitial water from a core. Results Berea Sandstone — The first core examined was a specimen of Berea sandstone." This core had been cut essentially parallel to the bedding for permeability studies. The core was clamped in the core holder and saturated with 1.0N NaCl solution and the resistance determined. It was subsequently flushed and the resistance measured when saturated in turn with 0.1N, 0.025N, 0.01N, .005N sodium chloride solutions and finally with distilled water. In flushing the core with each

Jan 1, 1950

By E. S. Mardock, Robert E. Bush

The object of this paper is to report recent developments in the quantitative interpretation of radioactivity logs. The use of reference lines is described in the application of the new zero radioactivity reference line for the determination of neutron derived porosities is discussed. Illustrated examples are shown of logs from the reef limestone of the North Snyder Field and from the Lansing-Kansas City limestone of central Kansas. A method of using an interrelation factor calculated from the neutron and gamma ray curves, called the neutron Productivity number, for the estimation of productivity from sandstone formations is discussed. When used in a relative manner the neutron productivity number has aided in Predicting whether a given zone will produce gas or liquid or whether it is too shaly to produce. Examples of logs from wells in the Freites District, Venezuela, and in East Texas are shown to illustrate the application of the neutron productivitv number. INTRODUCTION The petroleum industry was introduced to some of the preliminary results of investigations into the quantitative interpretation of radioactivity logs in October, 1949." It was stated at that time that the methods presented were entirely relative because they involved the use of reference points obtained from the radioactivity log, i.e., shale reference lines, dense zone reference lines, or a combination of both shale and dense zone reference lines. These relative methods offered many advantages to the industry in interpreting radioactivity logs in terms of porosity with particular application to limestone and dolomite reservoirs. However, these relative methods did not offer the wide range of applicability desired because the esta1)lishment of reliable reference points from shale in some areas were difficult. It was recognized that a more reliable mean; of establishing reference lines was vitally needed. Such a method is now available through the introduction of an instrumeutal zero device. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the application of this new zero reference to the quantitative interpretation of radioactivity logs. Previously all applications of quantitative interpretations of radioactivity logs have been made in limestone reservoirs with little or no emphasis placed on sandstone reservoirs. A brief resumé of investigations into the quantitative interpretation of radioactivity logs in sandstone reservoirs is presented here. This discussion deals primarily with the interrelation of the gamma ray and neutron curves and the response of the latter to the density of the fluids filling the pore space in relatively homogeneous sandstones of uniform porosity. The authors believe that the methods presented herein are only applicable locally to specific fields and reservoirs, and that they probably do not offer a wide range of applicability. However, tile authors believe that the wider use of the new instrumental zero references in sand areas will reveal more information about the specific response of the gamma ray and neutron curves to changes in lithology and saturation. Two applications of quantitative interpretation using the new instrumental zero references are presented. Examples are given which show the comparison of logs and porosity in the limestones and dolomites of West Texas and Kansas. Logs of wells in 'Venezuela and East Texas are compared with the drill stem test data, production data, etc.. to illurtrate the interrelation of the gamma ray and neutron curve: and the rise of methods involving these interrelations to determine certain saturation variables. THE QUANTITATIVE APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVITY LOGS TO LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE RESERVOIRS Tile theoretical basis for the gamma ray and neutron curves has been discussed elsewhere.9 he method of recording the logs and apparatus involved has also been thoroughly covered and will not be discussed here.'."".'" It has been shown that the neutron curve responds exponentially to liquid filled porosity over the 1 1/2 to 35 per cent

Jan 1, 1951

By Robert E. Bush, E. S. Mardock

The object of this paper is to report recent developments in the quantitative interpretation of radioactivity logs. The use of reference lines is described in the application of the new zero radioactivity reference line for the determination of neutron derived porosities is discussed. Illustrated examples are shown of logs from the reef limestone of the North Snyder Field and from the Lansing-Kansas City limestone of central Kansas. A method of using an interrelation factor calculated from the neutron and gamma ray curves, called the neutron Productivity number, for the estimation of productivity from sandstone formations is discussed. When used in a relative manner the neutron productivity number has aided in Predicting whether a given zone will produce gas or liquid or whether it is too shaly to produce. Examples of logs from wells in the Freites District, Venezuela, and in East Texas are shown to illustrate the application of the neutron productivitv number. INTRODUCTION The petroleum industry was introduced to some of the preliminary results of investigations into the quantitative interpretation of radioactivity logs in October, 1949." It was stated at that time that the methods presented were entirely relative because they involved the use of reference points obtained from the radioactivity log, i.e., shale reference lines, dense zone reference lines, or a combination of both shale and dense zone reference lines. These relative methods offered many advantages to the industry in interpreting radioactivity logs in terms of porosity with particular application to limestone and dolomite reservoirs. However, these relative methods did not offer the wide range of applicability desired because the esta1)lishment of reliable reference points from shale in some areas were difficult. It was recognized that a more reliable mean; of establishing reference lines was vitally needed. Such a method is now available through the introduction of an instrumeutal zero device. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the application of this new zero reference to the quantitative interpretation of radioactivity logs. Previously all applications of quantitative interpretations of radioactivity logs have been made in limestone reservoirs with little or no emphasis placed on sandstone reservoirs. A brief resumé of investigations into the quantitative interpretation of radioactivity logs in sandstone reservoirs is presented here. This discussion deals primarily with the interrelation of the gamma ray and neutron curves and the response of the latter to the density of the fluids filling the pore space in relatively homogeneous sandstones of uniform porosity. The authors believe that the methods presented herein are only applicable locally to specific fields and reservoirs, and that they probably do not offer a wide range of applicability. However, tile authors believe that the wider use of the new instrumental zero references in sand areas will reveal more information about the specific response of the gamma ray and neutron curves to changes in lithology and saturation. Two applications of quantitative interpretation using the new instrumental zero references are presented. Examples are given which show the comparison of logs and porosity in the limestones and dolomites of West Texas and Kansas. Logs of wells in 'Venezuela and East Texas are compared with the drill stem test data, production data, etc.. to illurtrate the interrelation of the gamma ray and neutron curve: and the rise of methods involving these interrelations to determine certain saturation variables. THE QUANTITATIVE APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVITY LOGS TO LIMESTONE AND DOLOMITE RESERVOIRS Tile theoretical basis for the gamma ray and neutron curves has been discussed elsewhere.9 he method of recording the logs and apparatus involved has also been thoroughly covered and will not be discussed here.'."".'" It has been shown that the neutron curve responds exponentially to liquid filled porosity over the 1 1/2 to 35 per cent

Jan 1, 1951

By H. G. Doll

As a continuation of the earlier paper on the general subject of the SP log, a more complete analysis of certain features of the SP log in shaly sands is given. The pseudo-static SP in front of shaly sands is compared, on a theoretical basis, to the static SP in front of clean sands, as a function of the respective amount of shale and sand in the formation, and of the relative resistivities of the shale, of the uncontaminated part of the sand. and of the invaded zone of the sand. As a conclusion, the advantage of using reasonably conduc. tive mud in this case is shown. The discussion is illustrated by field examples. INTRODUCTION The discussion reported in the present paper is based on a theoretical analysis, and not on experiment. The field examples, joined to the text. are shown only as qualitative illustrations of the essential results of this analysis. Although the hypotheses made in the theoretical developments may perhaps be somewhat improved, it seems, nevertheless, that the results obtained account reasonably well for the actual phenomena, and give a fair approximation of their order of magnitude. The paper contains a mathematical analysis of a tri-dimen-sional distribution of potentials and current lines. due to spontaneous electromotive forces arising at the contact of shales and free electrolytes. as a function of the geometry and of the respective resistivities of the different media involved. It is assumed, although this hypothesis is not proven, that the emf's remain the same even if the shale occurs in very thin layers or in dispersed particles. It has already been pointed out 1,2,3 that, all other conditions being the same, the deflection of the SP log in front of a shaly sand is smaller than opposite a clean sand. When the thickness and the conductivity of a clean sand are large enough. the deflection of the SP log reaches a limiting value which is equal to the "static SP" of the clean sand. It is generally convenient to take the static SP of shale as the reference value or "base line." As a consequence, and for the sake of abbreviation, the expression. "static SP of a clean sand," is often used to designate the difference between the static SP of that sand and that of the shales, which difference is a measure of the total electromotive forces involved in the chain mud sand-shale. A similar limiting value is; also observed for the SP deflec-lion opposite a thick shaly sand, but it is smaller. just as if the total electromotive force involved were smaller in that case. This limiting value has been called the "Pseudo-Static SP" of the shaly sand. The static SP of a clean sand depends on the salinity of its connate water with respect to that of the mud, and, to a certain extent. on the differential pressure which controls the electro-filtration potentials, but it does not depend on the resistivity of the sand. On the contrary. the pseudo-static SP of a shaly sand depends not only on the salinity of its connate water and on the differential pressure, but also on the percentage of shale and on the resistivities of the shale, of the uncontaminated part of the sand, and of the zone invaded by the mud filtrate. If the three resistivities above were equal, the pseudo-static SP would be proportional to the percentage of sand in the shaly sand, and its departure from the static SP of a clean sand having the same connate water would simply be proportional to the percentage of shale. In that case, the pseudo-static SP of a shaly sand containing 10 per cent of shale would he 10 per cent less than the static SP of a clean sand. When. however. the sand is. on the average. substantially more resistive than the shale. the percentage of departure of the pseudo-static SP from the static SP of a clean sand is much larger than the percentage of shale. For that reason, the peaks of the SP log opposite shaly sands are systematically of smaller amplitude when the sands are oil-bearing than when they are water-bearing, all other conditions being the same. This feature is observed even when the sand beds are thick. and even when they do not contain a large percentage of shale. All this has already been described in all earlier publication", but mostly in a qualitative way. The present paper will analyze in more detail the action of the local SP currents which are generated inside of the shaly sands, and which are responsible for the abnormally low value of the pseudo-static SP. The quantitative computations have been extended to the general case of thin interbedded layers of sand and shale, where the resistivities of the shale and sand streaks do not have the same value: they are summarized in charts giving values of the pseudo-static SP of a shaly sand as a function of the different parameters involved. DEFINITIONS The static SP of a clean sand has been defined as the potential that would exist in the mud opposite that sand, were the SP current prevented from flowing. Such an ideal condition is represented on Fig. I-A. By analogy, the pseudo-static SP of a shaly sand can be defined as the potential that would exist in the hole, if the circuit shaly sand — surrounding shales — mud column were interrupted by the insulating plugs placed at the boundaries

Jan 1, 1950